$CLASSICAL GREEK AND ROMAN ART Greek Art and Culture is the major foundation of European culture. Over the past 2000 years the fundamental ideas of the Ancient Greeks have spread through the Mediterranean, the Roman Empire, the Middle East, Europe and the world. The Ancient Greeks developed a new way of thinking and seeing the world about them. They believed that truth could be found in nature. They were systematic in exploring nature, and they believed that there was an ideal perfection to be found in nature. Even in early classical art, the Greek search for an underlying order in nature is seen in vase paintings, in sculpture and even in architecture. This development coincided with a growing understanding of mathematics, science, literature and philosophy.The Greeks developed a theory of aesthetics based on the ideal perfection of natural things. They believed that there were ideal proportions of figures, ideal mathematical ratios in buildings, and ideal relationships of parts to the whole. Beauty was defined then as the perfect relationship of the parts to the whole. The artist, poet, or scientist was to look for these ideals in nature and imitate them in his works. This is called Naturalism. Art then was aimed at being pleasing to the eye of the human viewer. The Greeks based the judgment of the truth of their arts and sciences on the individual human viewer or observer. This belief is called Humanism, a concept which was extended and developed by the Christian Humanists of Renaissance Europe. The anatomical structure of the naked human body became a valid object of study linking together aesthetics, their sense of Naturalism and their sense of Humanism. Greek artistic developments took place from about 550 B.C. to the Roman conquest of 150 B.C., and are categorized into the periods Early Classical, High Classical, Late Classical and Hellenistic. · Sculpture and Relief Classical Greek sculpture and relief went through a number of phases. The Early Classical period from 500 to 450 B.C., is characterized by a mood of static serenity. In the High Classical period from 450-400 B.C. art was very formal, and unlike the previous period, emotions tended to be very restrained. Sculptors portrayed a studied naturalism, and females began to be portrayed. From 400-320 B.C.,the Late Classical period represents the change from classical idealism to the realism of the Hellenistic era. Sculpture and relief subjects were more humanistic, and softer emotions were portrayed. The Hellenistic period of 320-31 B.C. saw an increasing search for realism and the dynamics of motion. Artists tried to recapture human emotions by using a diverse range of subjects. Roman sculpture and relief was heavily influenced by the Greeks. The Roman pursuit of realism can be seen in the popularity of portraiture, trying to capture individual traits in a sculpture. Roman portraiture was therefore very lifelike. The portrayal of Roman leaders was often exaggerated to show strength, power and leadership. · Vase Painting Greek vase painting took place before and during the classical era. Even in the early works the Greek search for the true depiction of nature is shown. In the sixth century B.C. The figures on the vase were silhouetted, and the artist etched detail into the black clay. The style was mostly narrative and mythical. Towards the end of the sixth century B.C., the red figure technique was introduced. With the subjects now being fired red instead of black, they could be given a three dimensional view. The portrayal of the figures was less clumsy, and the twisting of bodies was portrayed more realistically. The white ground technique was the third development. This allowed a variety of colors to be painted, giving depth to the subject. · Painting Greek paintings have not survived except in Roman copies, the source of much of our knowledge being from the archaeological discoveries at Pompeii. However, these painting reveal the same Greek search for realism in the efforts to trick the eye by special illusionistic effects. That is, painters tried to create an illusion of the depth of space on a flat wall, by using perspective lines, chiaroscuro tonal shading, and the overlaying of figures. Much of their work is based on previous developments in sculpture. The Roman painting style though adds the development of depicting country life in landscape paintings. · Architecture Greek architecture was based on beauty. The architects aimed to make the appearance of a building seem lighter than the materials would suggest, and the parts all leading to an understanding of the whole building. Architecture thus was a contemplative activity as well as a practical one. Columns were fluted to disguise the massiveness of the stones; they were narrowed at the top to suggest the ease of carrying the weight of the roofing. The columns were also spaced according to the perspective of the viewer and in strict ratios, thus appealing to the public response. The capitals on the columns suggested a gradual easing of the weight of the roof. These capitals had three main styles: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The Doric capital was a simple geometric shape; the Ionic based on ram's horns; while the Corinthian was based on decorative leaf patterns. Furthermore, sculptural reliefs above the architrave became a means of teaching the public important stories about the gods. Roman architecture was heavily influenced by the Greeks. They adopted the three orders, and often used them simultaneously. However, the Romans did make innovations of their own, with the introduction of domes and arches. This was a most important development leading to stable multi-storied buildings and higher structures based on a set of 4 arches creating the great domed public buildings of Europe and the Middle East. #EXEKIAS 550 B.C. Exekias was a potter and painter from the early Classical period, whose works were signed. His works reveal a delicate and elegant touch, especially shown in quiet scenes of legendary heroes. *150 Exekias DIONYSUS SAILING 550 B.C. Antikensammhingen, Munich. This eye-cup painting reveals the refined techniques and basic naturalism even in early Greek art. *101 Exekias ACHILLES AND PENTHESILIA 550 B.C. Vase Painting, British Museum, London. Achilles was a famous Greek warrior during the Battle of Troy. His body was magically protected except for his heel. Amphora were the main container vessels in Mediterranean civilization. Their large size enabled narrative works of this kind. Note the engraved detail. The composition is balanced by the spears and the eye contact between the figures. *102 Exekias HEROES AT DRAUGHTS 550 B.C. Vase Painting, Vatican, Rome. This narrative work depicts an event during the Trojan war with the two heroes, Ajax and Achilles, plotting the outcome playing draughts. It was typical of Greek artists to combine domestic human events with the lives of heroes. #EUTHYMIDES 500 B.C. Euthymides and Euphronios were two outstanding painters at the height of Classical Greek Vase-Painting. Painters were experimenting with foreshortening techniques, allowing the viewer to see figures with back or front turned. *104 Euthymides WINE POURER 510 B.C. Hydria, Gregorian Museum, Vatican. This red-figured work celebrates the importance of wine in the daily life of the Greeks on a common container. *105 Euthymides THREE REVELLERS 500 B.C. Vase-Painting. This is an illustration of the red-figure technique. An improved portrayal of anatomy and drapery is evident here. Note the domestic situation which reveals the Greek love of including everyday events in works of art. #ASTEAS 400 B.C. Asteas is one of the few Classical Greek potters whose works were signed in this period. His red-figured works were discovered in South Italy. Rustic humour and genre were becoming popular subjects for the vase-painter. *110 Asteas ZEUS AND HERMES 350 B.C. Krater, Gregorian Museum, Vatican. This is a scene from a popular urban farce: the love affair of Zeus with a mortal. Zeus is led to his lover by Hermes. Greek cosmopolitan humanism and urbane life-style of late Classical times is here clearly shown in this caricature. #PHIDIAS 450 B.C. Phidias was a Greek sculptor in the High Classical period. He was given the task of overseeing the sculptural works of the Parthenon and Acropolis by Pericles. He has a most important influence on art. It was his idealizing Classical style, with quiet, serene controlled emotions, which defined the word: Classical. This style can be seen on the metopes of the Parthenon. *121 Phidias JAR CARRIERS 432 B.C. Marble relief, British Museum, London. This is a relief metope decorating the Parthenon. Phidias here portrays a sense of majesty in these three figures. Although the design is repetitive, the figures are not identical. *122 Phidias ATHENA 440 B.C. Marble, Museo Civico, Bologna. Pallas Athena was the goddess of Wisdom and also the military patronal protector of Athens. Phidias was the supreme sculptor of Classical Athens. Here Phidias reinterprets Athena, not as the great monumental goddess with helmet and shield, but as the epitome of femininity. The soft idealized serenity in the handling of the stonework reveals the mastery of Phidias. *123 Phidias THREE GODDESSES 440 B.C. Marble, British Museum, London. These three goddesses, Demeter, Persephone and Triptolemos, were a popular subject in Greek art - they represent Spring, new life, and fertility. This relief portrait was thought to have been the work of Phidias. The facial expressions reflect a mood of serenity - a mood which is associated with the increasingly idealized concepts of Greek Classical art. *124 Phidias THE THREE FATES 438-431 B.C. Marble relief, British Museum, London. The Three Fates were the female spirits who controlled the destiny of mankind. They shared one eye and one tooth between them. This group is a metope or relief from the front of the Parthenon, sculpted by Phidias, a leading Greek artist of the time. Females were beginning to be portrayed. Note the skillful handling of the drapery and mood of grandeur. #MYRON 470 B.C. Myron was an early Greek Classical sculptor, known best for his works capturing figures in unusual poses or arrested motion. His most famous work was the Discus-thrower. *120 Myron DISCOBOLUS 460 B.C. Marble, Terme Museum, Rome. Myron was famous in his time as one of the first great Greek sculptors in the early Classical period. Here Myron depicts the Greek search for the ideal proportions of man. Athletic activity was very popular for military training and led to the Olympic games. #PRAXITELES 350 B.C. Praxiteles was a Greek sculptor from the late Classical period. His works continue the development of the classic style by more delicate modelling of the surfaces, and by creating a more humanistic feel in his works. The sinuous poses and gentleness of his figures set a standard only surpassed by Renaissance Italian sculpture. *128 Praxiteles HERMES AND DIONYSUS 350 B.C. Marble, Olympian Museum, Athens. Hermes, or Mercury, was the messenger of the gods, while Dionysus, or Bacchus was the god of wine. Praxiteles was one of the most important sculptors in the late Classical period. Although the child is out of proportion with Hermes, notice the refined technique the artist has given in the graceful curving of Hermes body. *129 Praxiteles VENUS d'MILO 350 B.C. Marble, Louvre, Paris. Aphrodite, or Venus, was the goddess of sexual love. She was depicted in many aspects: from the modest maiden, to the sensual destiny of man. A famous statue. Here Praxiteles depicts woman as the ideal with perfect proportions and modest posture. Praxiteles was famous for his development the Classical style. #ANON Ancient Many works by Ancient Greek and Roman artists are unknown. Some Greek vase-painting is signed by artists such as Exekias, Euthymides, or Asteas; and sculpture by such as Phidias, Myron or Praxiteles is known; but for many buildings, paintings from Pompeii, mosaics and Roman works there is no certain attribution. *103 Anon EOS MOURNING 530 B.C. Vase Painting, Gregorian Museum, Vatican. This black-figured work shows Eos mourning her son, Memnon. His helmet, armour and greaves lie against a tree in the forest. *106 Anon ACHILLES AND HECTOR 480 B.C. Krater-Painting, British Museum, London. This work by the 'Berlin' painter reveals a mastery of balance in the accurate twisting of bodies seen here in this dramatic battle. *107 Anon OEDIPUS AND SPHINX 470 B.C. Kylix, Gregorian Museum, Vatican. Here Oedipus sits pondering the riddle of the Sphinx. Those who cannot answer are devoured. This red-figured work is clearly composed, the figures well-balanced. *108 Anon JUDGEMENT OF PARIS 450 B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. In this vase-painting, the first Beauty Contest, Paris is given the unenviable task of choosing the most beautiful of the Olympian goddesses knowing he will be punished by the losers. The Trojan War is caused by this event. Painted on a pyxis by the Penthesilia painter, this is an example of the white ground technique, allowing a variety of colours to be used. *109 Anon POMPE AND DIONYSUS 350 B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. This red-figure vase painting reveals the development of simpler composition, making more use of space. *111 Anon HERMES ENTRUSTS SILENUS 350 B.C. Calyx Krater, Etruscan Museum, Vatican. This polychromatic krater depicts the Greek legend where Hermes gives his son to Dionysus. This is a late example of vase-painting. A white ground is used, figures are naturalistic, and the composition classically balanced. *112 Anon PARTHENON 432 B.C. Athens. This temple was dedicated to the patron goddess of Athens, Pallas Athena, goddess of wisdom. The previous temple was destroyed by the Persians. This new temple was built by the proud and victorious Athenians to celebrate the final defeat of the Persians after the Battle of Salamis. This is the most famous Greek temple of the classical era. It was built in the Doric style, that is, the tops of the columns are finished with the Doric Capital. Some important innovations in structure have been made. The columns in the middle are slightly higher than at the corners while the columns lean inwards slightly. Through these methods, the building appears to be absolutely regular in shape. This is a building made to look pleasing to the eye. *114 Anon TEMPLE OF NIKE 500 B.C. Athens. This temple is an example of the Ionic order. Note the volute capital, the definite bases to the columns, and the continuous frieze. All are typical features of the Ionic order. *115 Anon OLYMPIEUM TEMPLE 131 B.C. Athens. This temple illustrates the third order of capitals: the Corinthian capital, which has a decorative touch to the top of the columns. This flowery style became the most popular capital even in its use on 20th Century buildings. *116 Anon CARYATID PORCH 420 B.C. Ex-Erechtheum, British Museum, London. A variation of the Ionic order, it is unique in using female figures to replace the columns. The drapery on the figures is finely sculpted, revealing the natural relaxed pose of later Classical art. *117 Anon THEATRE OF DELPHI 200 B.C. Delphi. The Greek theatre had become a centre of life for Greek civilization. Designed for the projection of voice, religious festivals, and speeches, this is an fine example of functional architecture. The orchestra is semi-circular and is surrounded by the seating in the hillside. The stage was surrounded by columns. *119 Anon POSEIDON 470 B.C. Bronze, National Museum, Athens. Poseidon, or Neptune, was the god of the sea, shown in the act of throwing his trident. This work is typical of early classical sculpture, yet has a naturalism more characteristic of the high classical era. *125 Anon CENTAURS AND LAPITHS 432 B.C. Marble relief, British Museum, London. The centaurs were invited to a feast with the Lapiths. But the centaurs, being unaccustomed to wine, fell in love with the Lapith women, and tried to rape them. A battle ensued. This was a very popular story at the time, Michelangelo repeating the same theme in the 16th Century. This is a relief decorating the Parthenon. The figures in this relief are in proportion showing an increased understanding of anatomy. *126 Anon PERICLES 429 B.C. Marble, Gregorian Museum, Vatican. Pericles was elected fifteen times as leader of the city of Athens, becoming therefore a powerful threat to the city democracy. This is one of many portraits in Greek classical times. Here Pericles is depicted with his military helmet pushed back over his head. *127 Anon APOLLO BELVEDERE 350 B.C. Marble, Vatican Museum. Apollo was the god of reason and light. He served as a model for youth. This work was considered by historians of the 19th Century as being the finest work of art from the Classical world. The sculptor has idealized Youth. The muscular formation is carefully understated; the finish pure; the compositional contrapposto pose elegant; and the subject, a perfect model for youthful man. *130 Anon CAPITOLINE VENUS 320 B.C. Marble, Capitoline Museum, Rome. Aphrodite, or Venus, was the goddess of sexual love. She was depicted in many aspects - from the modest maiden, to the sensual destiny of man. This Aphrodite is made to depict the ideal woman. Here the sculptor masters both the detailing of movement and gesture. The modest pose and sweep of the back all reveal the height of naturalism in Greek art. *131 Anon NIKE 200 B.C. Marble, Louvre, Paris. The 'winged victory' theme is associated with Fortune or fate - a popular theme for art in Classical times. A certain brand of contemporary motor vehicle uses the Nike and the Parthenon shapes as motifs for its grill. This is typical of the Hellenistic period: realistic portrayal of action, movement and careful detailing all combined for emotional effect. *132 Anon MASKED DANCER 200 B.C. Bronze, Private Collection, New York. Hellenistic art became more focused on human subjects as can be seen in this example of Hellenistic realism. The twist of the body creates a sense of dynamic motion, and the drapery is superbly shown stretching round the body. *133 Anon THE LAOCOON GROUP 100 B.C. Marble, Vatican Museum. In one of the legendary events of the Trojan War, Laocoon and his sons were stung to death by serpents sent by the god, Apollo. This is typical of a Hellenistic work in its depiction of emotion and action, here the twisting group evokes agony and anguish. *134 Anon PANTHEON 128 B.C. Rome. This famous work served as a temple to all the gods of the Roman Republic: Greek, Middle East, and local deities were worshipped here. The Greek influence is evident in the columns, capital and pediment. But it is also distinctly Roman in its domed body and use of arches in its structure. *135 Anon PANTHEON 128 B.C. Rome. The compartments in the dome enhance the sense of balance in the composition inside. There are eight arched recesses within. The Pantheon interior has been redecorated in High Renaissance style. *136 Anon COLOSSEUM 80 B.C. Rome. This famous Flavian amphitheatre reveals the synthetic approach of Roman art including columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. It is made of Travertine stone, concrete, marble and wood. Full structural use is made of the arch. *137 Anon COLOSSEUM INTERIOR Rome. The Colosseum seated 45,000 people, the flow of crowds being controlled by an intricate system of corridors. All kinds of public activities occurred here, from drama to gladiatorial contests. *139 Anon IDYLLIC LANDSCAPE 30 B.C. Fresco, Pompeii. Pompeii was buried by the volcanic eruption of Vesuvius. Archaeological diggings reveal the state of Greek painting at that time. This painting reveals the attempt at creating a sense of depth in the construction of space, as well as the effect of light to create motion within the scene. *140 Anon BOSCOREALE 50 B.C. Fresco, Pompeii. This wall painting reveals the illusionistic attempts by Greek or Roman painters in imitating architectural features. This kind of experiment in space was not developed again till the Early Renaissance, 1300 years later. *141 Anon DIOSCOURIDES OF SAMOS 50 B.C. Mosaic, Museo Nazionale, Naples. The artist who created this mosaic in Pompeii, has tried to give the same effect as a painting by skillfully using minute pieces of stone. This Roman copy of Hellenistic work, shows the preoccupation with popular farce and caricature. The humanistic nature of Greek art had profound consequences on the development of Europe. *142 Anon SPRING 50 B.C. Fresco, Museo Nazionale, Naples. This was found in Pompeii. It is a Hellenistic painting that captures a mood of serenity and elegance. The work is one of the first genre paintings in history. *143 Anon STILL LIFE 50 B.C. Fresco, Museo Nazionale, Naples. The sheer urban humanism and prosaic naturalism of late Greek art is shown here in this still-life study. This is an early attempt at depicting depth in objects through observing the effects of light. *144 Anon LIVIA 25 B.C. Fresco, Pompeii. This detailed garden scene shows that the artist was trying to break through the solidity of the surface. This illusionistic effort was not repeated until the late Middle Ages of the Early Renaissance. *145 Anon HERCULES FINDING HIS SON 100 A.D. Fresco, Herculaneum. Stories about Hercules were popular in the Ancient World. Here the artist has attempted to overlay the figures to create a sense of depth. Note the naturalism of the figures. *146 Anon EMPEROR AUGUSTUS 10 B.C. Marble, Vatican Museum. This is a typical example of Roman art where sculpture is used for propaganda purposes by idealizing Augustus as divine, Cupid at his side. *148 Anon EMPEROR CARACALLA 200 A.D. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. This marble frowning face of the Emperor gives both the forceful image desired, and an accurate portrayal of Caracalla himself. Roman art excels in realistic portraiture as shown here. By this time the influence of the idealism of the Greeks is no longer found in Roman art. *149 Anon ARCH OF CONSTANTINE 315 A.D. Rome. Dedicated to Emperor Constantine this Arch is one of the finest examples of Roman architecture and relief sculpture. The old Greek orders are evident but the columns have no structural significance. Like its statues and reliefs, they are purely decorative.