Germany, a unified country from 1871 to 1945, was divided after World War II into two states: the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). In 1990, following the collapse of the East German Communist regime, East Germany voted for unification with the Federal Republic. Located in Central Europe, unified Germany is bordered on the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic sea; on the east by Poland and Czechoslovakia; on the south by Austria and Switzerland; and on the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The 1990 unification was preceded by a complex series of treaties between Germany and its World War II adversaries: the United States, the \TUSSR\t, Great Britain, and France. The Federal Republic remains allied with the West, and is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Community. However, no NATO troops or nuclear weapons are allowed on the territory of the former East Germany. The remaining Soviet troops still stationed there are to be withdrawn by the end of 1994. The West German Deutsche Mark became the sole legal currency for both countries, and their economic, social, educational, and legal systems were merged. \TBerlin\t was declared the new capital of the Federal Republic, although the transfer of government institutions from Bonn, the old West German capital, was scheduled to take place over a 12-year period. While legally unified, the two former states remain divided between an economically prosperous West and an impoverished East. The economic and social reconstruction of eastern Germany is the most important challenge facing the unified country. LAND AND RESOURCES Five major physiographic regions may be differentiated in Germany: the North German Lowlands, the Southern Transitional Borderlands, the Central Uplands (Mittelgebirge), the Alpine Foreland, and the Alps. North German Lowlands This hilly region, extending south from the Baltic Sea coast, is part of the Great Plain of Europe. The plain was covered by Quaternary deposits, which are partially of glacial origin. The Baltic and the North Sea coasts have numerous indentations, but because coastal waters are shallow the area is deficient in natural harbors. The infertile soils require intensive tillage and fertilization. Southern Transitional Borderlands To the south of the lowlands is a transitional belt of thinly layered morainic material with highly fertile loess soil. The borderlands include a number of lowland embayments, most notably the Cologne Bay in the southwest. Most of the country's coal and lignite deposits are located in the borderlands. The Mittelland Canal is a vital artery in the region. Central Uplands A faulted area composed of worn-down fragments of the late Paleozoic system, the Central Uplands are heavily forested and consist of dissected hills, inactive volcanoes, plateaus, and granite massifs. The highland areas include the \TBlack Forest\t and the scarplands of Swabia and Franconia in the southwest; the \THarz\t Mountains, Thuringian Forest, and Saxon Uplands in the north and east; and the Bohemian Forest in the southeast. Of the many ridges and valleys of the region, the most picturesque is the valley of the \TRhine River\t as it flows in an 80-km-long (50-mi), often-narrow, steep gorge from Bingen to Bonn. The Rhine is Europe's busiest waterway and the gorge is a famous tourist attraction. Alpine Foreland and the Alps The Alpine Foreland, located to the northeast of the Alps, has the appearance of a broad plain. Rivers rise in the Alps and cross the foreland in broad, marshy valleys. Only the Danube is navigable. A small part of the \TAlps\t lies within Germany, in the extreme south. Germany's highest mountain peak, the Zugspitze (2,963 m/9,721 ft) is located south of Munich. Drainage Germany has an extensive network of rivers, most of which drain into the Baltic and North seas. The major exception is the \TDanube River\t, which flows to the Black Sea. The Rhine River, Europe's busiest waterway, is navigable throughout West Germany. The \TMoselle\t (German: Mosel) and the \TMain\t rivers are its chief tributaries. Chief tributaries of the Danube are the \TInn\t, Isar, and Naab rivers. Other important rivers are the \TElbe\t, \TOder\t, \TSpree\t, \TWeser\t, Ems, and Saale. Lake \TConstance\t, Germany's largest lake, is located in the Alps. Climate Germany's climate is generally temperate. Because of moist, warm winds from the Atlantic Ocean, the west experiences fairly mild winters and summers. The average annual temperature in northwestern Germany is about 10 deg C (50 deg F); in the southwest it averages 12 deg C (53 deg F) yearly. The east experiences a more continental climate with cold winters and short, hot summers. Annual temperatures average about 2 deg to 4 deg C (3.6 deg to 7.2 deg F) lower than in the west. Baltic Sea harbors are frequently closed by ice during the winter. Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout Germany, with the heaviest rainfall--from 864 to 1,016 mm (34 to 40 in)--occurring in the highlands. The coast has an annual average precipitation of 762 mm (30 in), and the east receives from 406 to 508 mm (16 to 20 in). Flora and Fauna More than one-quarter of the land is still under forest cover, mostly in highland regions. Coniferous trees, especially pine and fir, constitute two-thirds of the timber stands. Deciduous species, which include birch, beech, chestnut, oak, and walnut, grow mainly in the warmer area of west central and southwest Germany. Vines flourish in the Rhine, Moselle, and Danube River valleys. Wild fauna are limited in number and variety. The red and roe deer are fairly common, and wild boars inhabit some forested areas. Less common species found in remote areas include the bear, wolf, fox, wildcat, otter, and badger. The harmful effect of pollutants on Germany's forests has become a major concern with the proliferation of exhaust fumes and industrial waste. Environmental damage is especially severe in the Black Forest. PEOPLE OF GERMANY Language and Religion The official spoken and written language is modern German, or High German (Hochdeutsch), but the ordinary speech of most Germans is influenced by the many dialects found throughout the country. The regional origin of German speakers can usually be determined by their accent. The northern state of Schleswig-Holstein, which borders on Denmark, has a small Danish-speaking minority; in the east the state of Brandenburg has a small minority, the Sorbs or Wends, whose language is more Slavic than Germanic. Since the \TReformation\t Germany has been divided between a generally Protestant north and a Roman Catholic south and west. In 1990 the country was estimated to be 42% Protestant and 35% Catholic. Most Protestants belong to the \TEvangelical Church\t in Germany. In the former East Germany many people left their churches under Communist pressure; about half the population of eastern Germany has no religious affiliation (compared with 15% in the west) The constitution guarantees freedom of religion. While Germany has no state church, both major denominations receive extensive government financial support. The most important privilege given to the churches is the church tax. This tax, which amounts to about 10% of an employee's income tax, is automatically withheld from paychecks. Because it is tied to the income tax, which rises with wage increases, this tax assures the churches of a steady, inflation-proof flow of funds. Germany's small Jewish community (35,000) also receives state support for its religious activities. Demography The frequent and sudden changes that have characterized German history in the 20th century have had a significant impact on the country's population, birth rate, and demographic movements. Before World War II Germany had a population of 75 million. After the war about 10 million Germans who lived in territories east of the Oder and Neisse rivers were expelled into the remaining territory of the Reich (the Soviet, American, British, and French occupation zones), in Europe's largest migration since the Middle Ages. The total German civilian and military war dead reduced the population to under 70 million, with about 50 million in the Western zones and 20 million in the Soviet zone. From 1945 until the East German border was sealed off (see \TBerlin Wall\t) in 1961, almost 3 million Germans fled the Soviet zone to the West. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s the West German population continued to grow, fueled by a rising birthrate, East German refugees, and approximately 4 million foreign workers and their families. After a decline in the 1970s and early 1980s, the population rose again beginning in the late 1980s because of an influx of ethnic Germans from Poland, the \TUSSR\t, and other parts of Eastern Europe. In the former East Germany the sealing off of the border and government programs to encourage child rearing produced a slow but steady increase from under 16 million in 1961 to 18 million in 1989. Since unification about 2 million eastern Germans have moved into the western regions. The current population total includes almost 5 million foreign residents. German cities with populations of more than 500,000, in order of size, are Berlin, \THamburg\t, \TMunich\t, \TCologne\t, \TFrankfurt am Main\t, \TEssen\t, \TDortmund\t, \TDusseldorf\t, \TStuttgart\t, \TBremen\t, \TDuisburg\t, \TLeipzig\t, \THannover\t, and \TDresden\t. Age Structure Exceptionally low birthrates at the end of the two world wars and during the depression of the 1930s meant that by the 1990s the 35-40, 50-55, and 65-70 age groups were all underrepresented in the population relative to other groups. Casualties from the two world wars also produced a shortage of males that is still noticeable today in those over 65. The low number of younger males in the post-World War II period made it necessary to import foreign workers to alleviate a severe labor shortage. Society Although East and West Germany are now formally united, it will take years, if not decades, to fully integrate eastern Germany into western Germany's social and economic system. Western Germany is a highly advanced postindustrial society. Most of its work force is now in the service sector--technical, managerial, and administrative jobs predominate, and its economy is dependent on foreign trade. It is also a very mobile society; Western Germans are among the world's most well-traveled citizens. East Germany, on the other hand, was isolated from the world community for decades, its citizens forbidden to travel freely. Education Germany's educational system is crucial to its economic success and the stability of its social order. Under the terms of the treaty that preceded unification, East Germany agreed to adapt its educational system to conform to the West German model. Most West German education operates on a three-track pattern. After four years (ages 6-10) of compulsory primary school, students are divided into three groups. Those in the first track enter a \TGymnasium\t (academic secondary school) for nine years of university preparatory education, culminating in the Abitur (a degree roughly comparable to an American junior college diploma) and the right to attend a university, tuition-free. Students in the second group attend a general high school (Realschule) for up to six years, receiving a combination of academic and technical training. Depending on the student's aptitude and course of study, Realschule graduates may transfer to a Gymnasium and the university. Those in the third track spend 5 to 6 years in a general school (Hauptschule), followed by three to four years of part-time vocational training and actual employment. This group enters the work force on a full-time basis at 18 or 19. The first two years in any track are considered an orientation period, and transfers from one track to another are possible. Currently, most German students attend either the Realschule or the Gymnasium. In the 19th century, German universities were pioneers in changing and expanding their curricula to keep abreast of advances in science. They set a new world standard by a skillful and successful combination of teaching and research. The oldest university, at Heidelberg, was founded in 1386. Other venerable universities include Freiburg (1457), Munich (1472), Tubingen (1477), Marburg (1527), and Gottingen (1737). A major problem confronting the former East Germany is the transition from the old Communist educational system to the West German model. Most teachers, university professors, and school administrators in East Germany were members of the Communist party and have been put on probationary status; many will be dismissed or retired early. Health Care The Federal Republic has a system of comprehensive health care that ensures almost all Germans high-quality medical and hospital benefits regardless of their income or social status. The health insurance program is financed by employer and employee contributions and is administered by more than 1,500 funds throughout the country. These "sickness" funds (Krankenkasse) are organized by economic sector (business, agriculture, and professions), occupational group, and geographic area. In order to offset the rising cost of health care, the government in 1989 introduced cost-cutting measures that require more individual payments from health-care recipients. Culture Germany has a rich cultural heritage. The accomplishments of its writers, artists, composers, conductors, and philosophers have enriched both Germany and the world for centuries (see \TGerman art and architecture\t; \TGerman and Austrian music\t; \TGerman literature\t). The state has always been an important patron of the arts, and this tradition continues today. Almost all forms of cultural expression are subsidized by public funds. More than half the costs of opera and theater productions, for example, are paid by the federal, state, or local governments. Despite this, state interference in cultural matters under the Federal Republic has been infrequent and almost always strongly criticized. Following the collapse of the \TThird Reich\t under Adolf \THitler\t, which had driven many of the country's most famous writers and artists into exile, Germany's cultural community sought to reestablish its European and international ties. Today the full range of modern cultural expression can be found in all artistic areas. The cultural scene is very open to new trends and styles, and contemporary German writers, painters, architects, composers, and filmmakers have won international recognition. The end of the East German Communist regime sparked debates between East and West German artists over the role of culture under the Communist system. When Christa \Twolf\t--one of East Germany's most important writers--published an account of her surveillance and harassment by the secret police during the 1960s and 1970s, she was widely criticized in the West German media for her failure to express such views while the Communists were still in power. While other writers were jailed or forced to flee, her critics charged, Wolf led a privileged life and kept her critique of Communism within carefully limited bounds. Other western writers such as Gunter \Tgrass\t, however, came to her defense. A similar dispute took place among Germany's painters. Several leading West German artists and critics charged that their East German counterparts were lackeys of the party, little more than cynical servants of an ideology (Marxism-Leninism) that suppressed individual freedom, the source of all art. Their major target was Bernhard Heisig, East Germany's most prominent painter. Heisig rejected the charges, but several West German museums have refused to exhibit his works and those of other former East German artists. Generally, most cultural figures in Germany opposed the rapid pace of unification, which gave the East Germans little choice but to accept a West German "takeover." Gunter Grass, probably West Germany's most prominent literary figure, was especially critical of unification, arguing that because of the crimes of the Nazi regime Germany had forfeited forever the right to be a "normal" nation with a sense of traditional national pride and patriotism. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Germany is one of the world's major economic powers. In 1990 it was the largest trading nation, surpassing even the United States and Japan. Its economy, Europe's strongest, accounts for about 35% of the economic output of the 12-nation \TEuropean Community\t (EC). Germany is relatively poor in natural resources. Its economic success is based on the production of sophisticated manufactured goods, notably motor vehicles (cars, trucks, and buses), chemicals, and complex machine tools. Almost a third of its national income is derived from exports, mainly to its EC partners. With its own unification and the collapse of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe, Germany is likely to play an important economic role in that region. Since unification the economy of the former East Germany has declined rapidly. Most of its manufactured products are not competitive in the open international market. Its previous trading partners--the \TUSSR\t and the countries of Eastern Europe--lack the hard currency to purchase its exports. Its industrial plants and equipment are outmoded and in need of modernization. Its infrastructure (roads, highways, telephone system, railroads, utilities, sewage and waste disposal) is also in very poor condition. The modernization of these facilities requires a large infusion of investment capital, which will come mostly from West Germany. At a minimum, $100 billion will be needed annually over a period of ten years to complete the process. These economic problems are compounded by a badly damaged environment and a lack of administrative structures such as local and state governments and courts. The service sector of the economy--hotels, restaurants, leisure facilties, independent artisans, and shopkeepers--is also poorly developed. Manufacturing Lacking self-sufficiency in food and raw materials, Germany's economic well-being, like that of Great Britain and Japan, is heavily dependent on successful competition in the international marketplace. In essence, it must import food and raw materials and pay for them by exporting manufactured goods. The nation's largest manufacturing firms include the Daimler-Benz corporation in Stuttgart and the Volkswagen company in the state of Lower Saxony--both major producers of motor vehicles. Electronics manufacturing is dominated by the giant Siemens corporation in Berlin and Munich and the Bosch corporation in Stuttgart. The chemical industry is the province of three large corporations: Bayer, Hoechst, and BASF. The German chemical industry exports more than half of all its manufactured products. Mining and Energy The mining industry is restricted almost exclusively to coal. A large but unprofitable and environmentally damaging uranium-mining operation in East Germany was shut down in 1991. Hard-coal resources are found largely in the Rhine-Ruhr (see \TRuhr Valley\t) and \TSaarland\t regions of West Germany; East Germany has large reserves of lignite or brown coal, which was that country's major energy source. Lignite, however, must be strip-mined, and huge sections of the eastern German countryside have been destroyed by mining operations. Since the 1960s the German hard coal industry has suffered from falling demand. In West Germany coal's importance as an energy source dropped from 73% in 1950 to less than 20% in 1990. Yet it remains the one indigenous energy source, and the mining industry is heavily subsidized by the state and national governments. Nuclear power, which supplied 34% of Germany's electricity in 1990, is an important, though controversial, energy source. Agriculture The significance of agricultural production for the German economy has declined rapidly since the end of World War II. In West Germany the proportion of the work force in agriculture dropped from 25% in 1950 to less than 5% in the 1980s. Agricultural output contributed 12% of the gross national product in 1949; by 1985 it had dropped to less than 2%. For the most part, German agriculture has been inefficient in the use of land, labor, and capital. German farms are on the average the smallest of any non-Mediterranean country in the EC. This small size means high labor input and an uneconomical use of modern machinery. German agricultural production is part of the EC's Common Agricultural Policy (\TCap\t), which ensures stable farm prices in a protected market but also contributes to huge agricultural surpluses. In East Germany most farmers were forced to enter \Tcollective\t \Tfarms\t in the 1950s. Since unification East German agriculture has been in a process of reorganization. Some collective farms have become cooperatives, while others have disbanded and given their land back to its former owners, who are attempting to return to independent farming. Much of the country's richest farmland is in the former East Germany, and many of these farmers should be competitive in a free market. Transportation West Germany has one of the world's most modern transportation systems. Transportation is critical to the success of the economy. The largest transportation company is the state-owned Federal Railways (Bundesbahn), which employs 264,000 people. Its passenger service features hourly connections between all of Germany's major cities. In 1991 a new high-speed train service was introduced, with computer-controlled locomotives capable of speeds up to 402 km (250 mi) per hour. The East German railroad (Reichsbahn) is to be integrated with the Bundesbahn by 1995. West Germany also has Europe's most modern and extensive system of high-speed superhighways, the Autobahn. Begun under Hitler, the Autobahn were extended and enlarged throughout the postwar period to keep up with rapidly increasing automobile and truck traffic. The number of private cars in West Germany increased from 2 million in 1950 to 34 million in 1988. This network is now being linked with the East German road system. The Autobahn are free to both Germans and foreigners, and have no speed limits. Air transportation is largely dominated by Lufthansa, the partially state-owned airline. East Germany's state carrier went out of business in 1991. Trade In 1990 Germany's trade surplus totaled almost $58 billion. Starting with practically no foreign currency reserves in 1949, the Federal Republic by 1989 had accumulated almost $80 billion in reserves, compared to $38 billion for the United States and $41 billion for Great Britain. Heavy investments in East Germany will reduce exports and increase imports in the 1990s, and the trade surplus is expected to decline. A rebuilt and modernized East German economy, however, will in the long run benefit German trade figures. In the 1980s the Federal Republic lost significant portions of its shipbuilding, electronics, and automobile markets to foreign imports, especially from Japan, Taiwan, and other countries where labor costs were lower. To meet this challenge, German industry has turned to increased automation, which has, at least initially, aggravated the unemployment problem. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Unification did not change the basic structure of the West German state and government defined by the Basic Law of 1949. The two German states did not merge; East Germany dissolved itself and, reconstituted as five new states, joined the Federal Republic. The new East German states accepted the West German constitution and laws without significant qualification. Germany is the only large federal state in the EC. Power is divided between the national government in Bonn and Berlin and 16 states (Lander). The original West German states were Baden-Wurttemberg (see \TBaden\t; \TWurttemberg\t), \TBavaria\t, Berlin, \TBremen\t, \THamburg\t, \THesse\t, Lower Saxony (see \TSaxony\t), North Rhine-Westphalia (see \TWestphalia\t), Rhineland-Palatinate (see \TRhineland\t; \TPalatinate\t), \TSaarland\t, and \TSchleswig-Holstein\t. In 1990 these were joined by the five new states of East Germany--BRANDENBURG, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (see \TMecklenburg\t; \TPomerania\t), Saxony, Saxony-Ahhalt, and \TThuringia\t. (Between 1952 and 1990, East Germany, not a federal state, was divided into administrative districts or bezirke. The states have primary responsibility for education, internal security (police), and culture, including control of public television and radio. Each state has its own parliament and a president elected by popular vote. The states also have a direct influence on the national government through their representation in the Federal Council (Bundesrat), the second house of the German parliament. The Federal Structure The major national decision-making bodies are the Federal Diet (Bundestag), which is the first house of parliament, and the federal executive, composed of the chancellor and the cabinet. The Federal Constitutional Court is comparable to the United States Supreme Court, and the federal president is the largely ceremonial chief of state. The Bundestag is responsible for legislation and for electing the chancellor. This election follows party lines: the party or coalition of parties with a majority of the Bundestag's 656 deputies selects the chancellor. The chancellor, the chief political executive, determines the major outlines of policy, which are then carried out by the cabinet and the state bureaucracy. The chancellor also appoints and dismisses the cabinet members, who are in charge of the various government ministries, such as Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Education. The main political parties are: the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), with its Bavarian affiliate, the Christian Social Union (CSU); the Social Democratic party (SPD); the Free Democratic party (FDP), and the Greens. The present chancellor, Helmut Kohl (CDU), has headed a CDU/CSU-FDP coalition since 1982. Kohl, the sixth chancellor in the history of the Federal Republic, seized the opportunity for unifying the two Germanies when the East German regime began to disintegrate early in 1990 and successfully carried it through in less than a year. The vice-chancellor and foreign minister is Hans-Dietrich Genscher (FDP), who has been West Germany's foreign minister since 1974. Elections Voting offers most Germans their main opportunity to influence government and politics. Elections to the national legislature must be held at least every four years but may be held sooner if the government loses its majority and requests the federal president to dissolve parliament and call for new elections. The constitution grants the right to vote and hold public office to all citizens 18 years old or older. Germany has automatic voter registration based on residence records maintained by local authorities. Half the members of the Bundestag are elected by winning a majority of the votes in given constituencies; the other half of the seats are distributed among the parties on the basis of votes cast for party lists in each state. German voters have generally supported the incumbent government. The CDU/CSU ruled from 1949 to 1969, usually in coalition with the Free Democrats. From 1969 to 1982 the SPD was in power, also in partnership with the FDP. The major social factors that influence German voting behavior are socio-economic status, religion, and age group. Most middle and upper-class voters support the CDU/CSU or the FDP; the SPD does well among working-class voters. Catholics tend to favor the CDU/CSU, Protestants the SPD or FDP. Older voters prefer the CDU/CSU; younger age groups support the SPD or the Greens. The Parties The Christian Democrats and the Free Democrats are in the center of the political spectrum. They support what Germans call the social market economy--a system of free enterprise combined with social welfare programs, such as national health insurance, family allowances, pensions, and support for unemployed and handicapped workers. These programs account for almost half the government's budget. The governing coalition also advocates close relations with the United States and supports membership in NATO and the EC. The Social Democratic party is the major opposition party at the national level and also controls the governments of several states. Bjorn Engholm became its leader in 1991. The SPD differed from the Kohl government on the pace of unification, preferring a more gradual process. It supports more state involvement in the economy, and, unlike the government, wants Germany to dismantle its nuclear power plants and drop any plans for the further development of this energy source. The Green party is the major voice of Germany's environmentalist movement. It was represented in the Bundestag from 1983 to 1990; although it failed to win any seats in the 1990 election, it is in coalition governments with the SPD in a number of the states. East Germany's Communist party, now renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism/Left List (PDS/LL), has 17 seats in the present Bundestag. In the 1990 parliamentary election it received about 10% of the vote in the former East German territories and less than 3% nationwide. East Germany's revolutionaries of 1989-90, who took to the streets to bring down the Communist regime, are represented by the Alliance 90 group, which is allied with East Germany's Green party and has 8 seats in the Bundestag. Human Rights Grievances Many East Germans want their former Communist rulers to be brought to trial and punished for crimes they committed during their forty-year reign. In December 1990 the former East German party chief, Erich \THonecker\t, was indicted for issuing the order to "shoot to kill" for East Germans attempting to flee the country following the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. Almost 200 people were killed as a result of that order. Before he could be taken into custody, Honecker fled to the \TUSSR\t. Other East German Communists were arrested and charged with crimes. Another controversy concerned the Stasi, the East German secret police organization that maintained files on more than five million East Germans and conducted espionage activities in West Germany. Many East Germans want the Stasi files released and former Stasi officials brought to trial. David P. Conradt Bibliography: \TGeneral\t: Ardaugh, John, Germany and the Germans (1987); Craig. Gordon A., The Germans (1982): Laqueur, Walter, Germany Today (1985); Marsh, David, The Germans: Rich, Bothered, and Divided (1990); Pond, Elizabeth, After the Wall (1990). \Tland\t AND RESOURCES: Dickinson, Robert E., Germany: A General and Regional Geography (1964). Hardach, Karl, The Political Economy of Germany in the Twentieth Century (1980). \TPeople\t: Dahrendorf, Ralf, Society and Democracy in Germany (1969); Headen, Arthur, Education in the Two Germanies (1974); Rabinach, Anson, and Zipes, Jack, Germans and Jews since the Holocaust (1986); Rist, Ray C., Guestworkers in Germany (1978). \Tculture\t: Bangerter, Lowell A., German Writing Since 1945 (1988); Papadakis, Andreas, German Art Now (1989); Sandford, John, The New German Cinema (1980). \Teconomy\t: Hartrich, Edwin, The Fourth and Richest Reich (1980); Schnitzer, Martin, East and West Germany: A Comparative Economic Analysis (1972); Smith, Owen, The West German Economy (1983) \Tgovernment\t AND \LPolitic\ls: Conradt, David P., The German Polity (1991); Krisch, Henry, The German Democratic Republic (1985); Merkl, Peter H., The Federal Republic of Germany at Forty (1989).