South Dakota is located in the center of the North American continent, bounded on the north by North Dakota, on the east by Minnesota and Iowa, on the south by Nebraska, and on the west by Wyoming and Montana. Its area of 199,730 sq km (77,116 sq mi) ranks 16th in size among the U.S. states. The population is 696,004 (1990 resident census), ranking 45th. The capital is \TPierre\t (pronounced pier). Dakota is a Sioux word meaning "alliance of friends." The state's nicknames include the "Sunshine State" and the "Coyote State." The territory was explored by the French in the mid-18th century, and settlement began in 1857. On Nov. 2, 1889, South Dakota became the 40th state in the Union. South Dakota has traditionally been an agricultural state, but recently it has become a major tourist center and has also experienced commercial and industrial growth. LAND AND RESOURCES The state is divided in half by the north-south-flowing Missouri River, which was formed when glaciers to the east blocked the flow of western rivers, forcing them southward. It runs through a channel about 90 to 150 m (300 to 500 ft) below the surface of the surrounding plain. The state's elevation averages 670 m (2,200 ft). Glaciated eastern South Dakota is known as Prairie Country. The melted ice left the land covered with glacial debris, resulting in low rolling hills, marshy areas and small lakes, and shallow river valleys. The eastern part of the state is covered with rich chernozem prairie soils. Unglaciated western South Dakota is part of the \TGreat Plains\t. It is composed of smooth hills, isolated buttes, and flat dissected plateaus. Fertile chestnut brown soils cover the drier plains. The beautiful, castellated \Tbadlands\t follow the White River, in the southern part of the state. The \TBlack Hills\t form a third topographic region in the southwest corner of South Dakota. They are a domed mountain region composed of an ancient crystalline core with deep valleys, surrounded by ridges of sedimentary strata. The state's highest point, Harney Peak (2,207 m/7,242 ft), is located in the Black Hills. Thin, infertile grey wooded soils are found there. Climate and Drainage The climate is continental with distinct seasons. Great extremes in diurnal and yearly temperatures can occur, modified by low humidity, moderate winds, and low precipitation. In January temperatures average from -12 deg to -7 deg C (10 deg to 20 deg F) in the north and between -7 deg and -4 deg C (20 deg and 24 deg F) in the south. In July temperatures range from 18 deg to 21 deg C (65 deg to 70 deg F) in the north, and between 21 deg and 24 deg C (70 deg and 75 deg F) in the south. Precipitation varies from 660 mm (26 in) in the southeast to 330 mm (13 in) in the northwest. Over two-thirds of the precipitation falls during the 130-day average growing season. The state can experience blizzards during winter and severe thunderstorms and tornadoes in spring and summer. The \TMissouri River\t, which flows into the Mississippi River and then to the Gulf of Mexico, receives drainage from all regions but northeastern South Dakota, which drains into the Hudson Bay. Principal eastern streams are the Big Sioux, Vermillion, and James rivers. The major western streams are the Grand, Moreau, Cheyenne, Bad, White, and Keya Paha rivers. The two largest natural lakes are Big Stone and Traverse, both in the northeast; the many large artificial lakes include Lake Oahe. Vegetation, Animal Life, and Resources Vegetation ranges from tall prairie grasses in the east to short steppe grasses in the west. Coniferous forests cover the Black Hills, and some deciduous trees such as elm, oak, box elder, and cottonwood occur along streams and in eastern shelterbelts. Animal life varies from pheasant, jackrabbit, and coyotes to antelope and bison. South Dakota's resources include fertile farmlands, rich grazing areas, and forests. Minerals include gold, stone, silver, mica, beryl, uranium, lignite, and petroleum. Reservoirs on the Missouri River impound surface water. The state has great concern for the environment, with citizens increasingly involved in environmental decisions. PEOPLE South Dakota has a population of 696,004 (1990 resident census). It is sparsely populated, ranking 45th among the states. In recent years the state has experienced significant out-migration. The population is mostly nonmetropolitan. \TRapid City\t and \TSioux Falls\t are the two principal cities; \TAberdeen\t and Pierre are also important. The population is predominantly white, with about 7% Indian, 0.8% Hispanic, 0.5% black, and 0.4% Asian. Many settlers came from New England and New York, and the major European immigrants were German, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish. The major religious groups are Lutheran, Roman Catholic, and Methodist. Education, Culture, and Communications Public school districts were organized in 1865 but were reorganized in 1968 to place a greater emphasis on regional schools. South Dakota has an appointed 7-member state board of education, headed by the secretary of the Department of Education and Cultural Affairs. There are several state institutions of higher education (see \LSouth Dakota, state universitie\ls AND \Lcollege\ls OF). Augustana College (1860) and Sioux Falls College (1883) in Sioux Falls and National College (1941) in Rapid City are the largest of several private colleges in the state. Cultural development began with opera houses that were set up in mining camps. Excellent museums include art museums at Brookings and Vermillion; Indian and geological museums at Rapid City; the Adams Memorial Hall Museum at \TDeadwood\t, with historical exhibits; and the Pettigrew Museum in Sioux Falls, with Indian, historical, and natural history exhibits. Theater is popular, with many programs centered on the college campuses. South Dakota has several daily newspapers. It is served by commercial radio and television stations. Tourism and Recreation Historic sites include Deadwood, an old mining town that included figures like Calamity Jane and Wild Bill Hickok among its residents; Yankton, the state's first white settlement; Fort Pierre, site of the earliest trading post; and the \TWounded Knee\t Battlefield, located near Pine Ridge in the Oglala Sioux Indian reservation. Mount \TRushmore\t is a national memorial in the Black Hills. National parks include Badlands and Wind Cave (limestone caverns located in the Black Hills). Recreational activities--hunting, fishing, camping, boating, skiing, and skating--take place in South Dakota's national parks and major state recreation areas. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY South Dakota is still a predominantly agricultural state, but both tourism and manufacturing have increased in importance since World War II, and mining is a vital part of the state economy. Manufacturing and Energy Manufacturing is growing rapidly, with meat packing the largest single industry in the state. Other major industries are food products, nonelectrical machinery, including farm and construction equipment; printing and publishing; lumber; electrical equipment; and stone, clay, and glass products. The four federal dams on the Missouri River, smaller hydroelectric plants, and coal-burning plants furnish residents with excellent access to electrical power. The state has limited fossil-fuel resources; there are some petroleum and lignite reserves. Natural gas supplies are limited to extreme eastern and western cities. Agriculture and Forestry Agriculture is the most important segment of the economy. Livestock production accounts for the majority of the state's agricultural income. The leading livestock commodities include beef cattle, hogs, lambs, and sheep. Principal crops grown in the state are wheat, hay, and corn. South Dakota is the leading U. S. producer of rye, flax, durum wheat, alfalfa seed, and sunflowers. The state's forest-product firms in the Black Hills utilize the ponderosa pine as a principal source of timber. Mining and Transportation The Homestake Mine in Lead is the nation's largest gold mine. Other major minerals are sand, gravel, and stone. Uranium was discovered in 1951 and petroleum in 1953. The major interstate highway in South Dakota is I-90, which crosses the state in an east-west direction, passing near Sioux Falls in the east and Rapid City in the west. Rail service has declined, and no passenger service is available. Commercial airlines serve several cities and towns. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS The state constitution was adopted in 1889. It provides for a 35-member senate and a 70-member house of representatives, with members of both houses serving 2-year terms. Both legislative bodies are reapportioned every 10 years. The executive branch is composed of a governor, lieutenant governor, and 6 administrative officials elected to 4-year terms. The judiciary is composed of a supreme court with 5 judges who serve 8-year terms, and 36 circuit court judges who also serve for 8 years. All judges are elected on a nonpartisan ballot. The state is divided into more than 3,500 units of local government. South Dakota has usually been a staunchly Republican state. A notable exception occurred during the drought and depression of the 1890s, when South Dakota supported the Populist party; the state elected a Populist governor and voted overwhelmingly for Democratic and Populist candidate William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 presidential election. The state returned to the Republican cause, however, with the return of prosperity and has continued to vote for Republican candidates, except for Theodore Roosevelt on the Progressive ticket in 1912, for Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 and 1936, and for Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. HISTORY Evidence indicates the presence of hunters in South Dakota as early as 7,000 years ago. About AD 500 the \TMound Builders\t appeared along the Big Sioux River. By 1250 settlers who may have been the forebears of the \TArikara\t tribe arrived, constructing fortresses with a capacity to contain up to 5,000 people, along the Missouri River. By the 16th century, the Arikara inhabited the area. Their fortified villages served as centers for agriculture, horse trading, military, and tribal organization. The territory was explored (1742-43) by the brothers Francois and Louis Joseph \TLa Verendrye\t, who claimed the land for France. In 1762, France ceded the area (which was part of the huge territory called Louisiana) to Spain, and thereafter both the \TSioux\t Indians and European fur traders began filtering into the territory. The Sioux, changing from a sedentary to a hunting existence, pushed the Arikara westward. This conflict, as well as susceptibility to European diseases, caused the downfall of the Arikara. In 1803 the United States acquired the area as part of the \TLouisiana Purchase\t. Trading posts such as Fort Pierre (established 1817) prospered with the fur trade. The first permanent European settlement was at Yankton in 1859, following a treaty with the Yankton Sioux. In 1862, Yankton became the capital of the newly established Dakota Territory. In the next decade settlements were established along the Missouri River and its tributaries, and the number of settlements increased rapidly with the coming of the railroad in the 1870s. In 1874, Gen. George \TCuster\t led an exploratory expedition into the Black Hills, discovering gold. With the resultant influx of settlers, new towns such as Deadwood were established. With new settlers, conflicts with the Sioux intensified, as much of the land had previously been granted to the Sioux by treaty. Although General Custer and his troops were defeated (1876) at the Battle of the \TLittle Bighorn\t, Indian resistance was finally crushed (1890) with the massacre at Wounded Knee (1890). Since then, the Indian population has primarily resided on the nine reservations in South Dakota. In 1973, as a means of drawing attention to Sioux grievances, some 200 armed Indians occupied Wounded Knee for 70 days. With the opening of land to homesteading, the population increased to 281,000 by 1890; the lands east of the Missouri were settled mostly by northern Europeans. Pressure for statehood ensued, but the movement was delayed by the Democrats in Washington who were reluctant to add another predominantly Republican state. North and South Dakota finally became states simultaneously on Nov. 2, 1889. Under the governorship of Peter Norbeck (1917-21) constitutional amendments sponsored by the Progressive wing of the Republican party enabled the state government to become involved in various commercial enterprises such as railroad rates regulation, coal mining, insurance, and credit. With the exception of the state cement plant, these failed dismally and left South Dakota deeply in debt by the mid-1920s. These failures combined with the Depression and the Dust Bowl droughts of 1933 and 1934 to put the state into a financial crisis that was not resolved until 1946. By 1933 one farm in every ten was lost by foreclosure or tax sale. After World War II, however, this rate changed to one in every 1,000. Since World War II the state has progressed, building a strong agricultural base on which to develop expanding tourism, industry, and commerce. Despite these developments, the state's Indian reservation residents have not kept pace and have continued to suffer a very high unemployment rate. That and the troublesome issue of tribal jurisdiction created incidents of racial conflict and other problems for the state in the 1980s and early 1990s. Edward P. Hogan Bibliography: Hogan, E. P., Geography of South Dakota (1976); Hogan E. P., et al., Atlas of South Dakota (1970); Jennewein, John L., and Boorman, Jane, eds., Dakota Panorama (1961; repr. 1973); Karolevitz, Robert F., Challenge: The South Dakota Story, 2d ed. (1979); Milton, John R., South Dakota (1977); Schell, Herbert S., A History of South Dakota, 3d ed. (1975), and South Dakota: A Students' Guide to Localized History (1971); Soli, Lynn D., and McCaig, Barbara, South Dakota Recreational Guide (1985).