{nuh-bras'-kuh} Nebraska lies immediately to the north of the geographic center of the conterminous United States, bounded on the north by South Dakota, on the west by Colorado and Wyoming, on the south by Kansas, and on the east by Iowa and Missouri. The extreme length of the state from south to north is 330 km (205 mi), and its extreme breadth from east to west is 727 km (452 mi). The total area of the state is 200,349 sq km (77,355 sq mi), making it the 15th largest of the 50 states. The name of Nebraska comes from the Oto Indian word nebrathka, which means "flat water," referring to the Platte River. The nickname of "Tree Planters' State" was selected by the legislature in 1895 in official recognition of the pioneers' efforts in planting trees on the prairie. In 1945 the state's official nickname was changed to "Cornhusker State" in honor of the University of Nebraska's football team. LAND AND RESOURCES Nebraska lies within two major physiographic regions of North America, the central lowlands and the \TGreat Plains\t. In the central lowlands and along the Missouri River elevations average about 255 m (840 ft), rising to about 365 m (1,200 ft) in the northeast. Elevations also increase westward to about 915 m (3,000 ft) in the southwest and to about 1,525 m (5,000 ft) in the northwest. The highest elevation in the state is 1,654 m (5,426 ft), in Kimball County. The topography changes from level to gently rolling prairie in the central lowlands. The eastern section of this area is a part of a glacial till plain that has been subjected to extensive weathering and erosion to form a well-developed drainage system. Farther west is the Sand Hill region, which occupies about 52,000 sq km (20,000 sq mi). It is characterized by sand dunes covered with short grasses and is interspersed with numerous valleys and shallow lakes. The High Plains section of the Great Plains lies to the west and south of the Sand Hills region. Soils Deep, rich silt loams and sandy loams cover about 109,000 sq km (42,000 sq mi) in the eastern third and southwestern quarter of Nebraska. These soils are especially noted for their fertility in growing corn, grain sorghums, and wheat. The Sand Hill section has sandy or sandy loam soils used almost exclusively for grass cover and grazing. Since the introduction of the center-pivot method of watering circular land plots, the use of irrigation has increased rapidly on these sandy soils. About 754 sq km (291 sq mi) of the Sand Hill region were under irrigation in 1975. The High Plains, with its broad tablelands and extensive areas of bottom land, occupies about 39,000 sq km (15,000 sq mi), mostly in the western panhandle. This westernmost section has a wide variety of loamy and sandy soils. The chief factor limiting the use of these fertile soils is the shortage of moisture, particularly in the west. Drainage The \TMissouri River\t, following the state's northeastern and eastern border, is the eventual destination of all streams in Nebraska. The \TPlatte River\t is the state's longest river. The North Platte, flowing from Wyoming, and the South Platte, entering from Colorado, join near the town of North Platte and flow generally eastward to enter the Missouri about 20 km (12 mi) south of Omaha. Other major rivers include the Loup, Niobrara, and Republican rivers. Most major lakes within Nebraska are artificial, and smaller ponds are associated with the high groundwater table. Climate Nebraska has light precipitation, relatively low humidity, hot summers, cold winters, and great variations in temperature and precipitation from year to year. Mean January temperatures are -5 deg C (23 deg F), with the coldest temperatures in the northeast, while the July mean temperature is 24 deg C (76 deg F), with the warmest temperatures in the southeast and south central sections. The growing season varies greatly from year to year and averages about 172 days in the southeast to about 122 days in the extreme northwest. The annual precipitation in the southeast averages 787 mm (31 in), in the central portion 584 mm (23 in), and in the panhandle 432 mm (17 in). About 77% of the precipitation falls during the months of April to September, with approximately 45% of the annual total from May through July. Vegetation and Animal Life Natural vegetation ranges from tall prairie grass in the east to the short, drought-resistant grasses of the west. Trees are usually confined to major water courses and consist of broadleaf deciduous species, especially elms and cottonwoods. Animal life prior to European settlement included American bison, beaver, deer, pronghorn antelope, coyote, pheasant, quail, grouse, and a variety of migratory waterfowl. Although the numbers of many of these animals were seriously depleted, diligent conservation efforts have replenished some species so as to allow an open hunting season each year. Resources One of the great resources of Nebraska is the comparative abundance of high-quality groundwater; these waters are held in rock strata that collect runoff from western mountains. Nearly all of the 1.7 billion acre feet of groundwater is easily accessible. Although it currently is being withdrawn at a rate greater than that of annual recharge, the problem of a potential shortage is not yet acute in most areas. The state's water conservation efforts are handled mainly at the local level, where authorities have the means through various laws to protect groundwater quantity and quality. PEOPLE The population growth of the state in recent decades has lagged behind the national average. Nebraska's population is overwhelmingly indigenous. Since the early 1930s the out-migration rate has tended to exceed the in-migration--the slight population gain being a result of a natural increase. The rate of growth from 1970 to 1980 was a modest 5.7%, and between 1980 and 1990 there was an increase of only 8,560 people, representing a growth rate of 0.5%. Nebraska is more rural in character than the nation as a whole. In 1990 only four cities in the state--Bellevue, \TGrand Island\t, \TLincoln\t, and \TOmaha\t--had populations exceeding 25,000. In addition to its rural nature Nebraska is comparatively homogeneous, with the vast majority of the population claiming European--particularly German--ancestry. The nonwhite population in 1990 was 97,827, about 6% of the total. Blacks account for nearly 60% of the minority population, and American Indians account for 13%. Persons of Hispanic origin make up about 2% of the state's population, and Asians make up nearly 1%. Of the nonwhite population about 67% are concentrated in the Omaha urban area (Douglas and Sarpy counties), with most of the remainder living in Lancaster and Thurston counties--the site of the Omaha and \TWinnebago\t Indian reservations--or in Scotts Bluff County. Nebraska's largest religious groups are the Roman Catholics, Methodists, and Lutherans. Roman Catholics are generally found in the northern and east central parts of the state, and Lutherans in the northeast and southeast corners. Methodists are more evenly distributed. Education Nebraska has had a compulsory education law since 1891. Higher education is available through the state university system (see \TNebraska, state university and colleges of\t) and several private colleges. Culture Major museums include the University of Nebraska natural science museum in Lincoln, the Nebraska State museum of History in Lincoln, the Hastings Museum, the Harold Warp Pioneer Village in Minden, and the Strategic Air Command Museum at Offutt Air Force Base in Bellevue. Leading art galleries include the Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha and the University of Nebraska art gallery and sculpture garden in Lincoln. Omaha and Lincoln both support symphony orchestras. Art and music interests are promoted throughout the state. Omaha has several theaters, including the Orpheum Theater, built in 1927 as a vaudeville house. It has been restored to its original opulence and now serves as a performing arts center. The state's most important libraries are those of the University of Nebraska at Lincoln and the Omaha Public Library. In addition, educational television funded from public and private sources is available throughout the state. Historical Sites The Homestead National Monument of America, located about 65 km (40 mi) south of Lincoln, commemorates the first farm plot to be claimed under the \THomestead Act\t of 1862. Chimney Rock National Historic Site and Scotts Bluff National Monument are important landmarks along the Overland Trail. Fort Robinson State Historical Park commemorates what was once an important military post during the Indian wars; \TCrazy Horse\t, chief of the Sioux, was killed there. Recreation State parks are located at Chadron, Niobrara, and Ponca. The state maintains more than 50 other lakes and recreation areas. Sports teams are supported with great intensity and pride, especially the "Cornhuskers" of the University of Nebraska at Lincoln. Many towns and counties hold fairs and rodeos during the summer. Communications Nebraska's leading newspapers are the Omaha World-Herald and the Lincoln Journal-Star. The state also has numerous radio and television broadcasting facilities. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES The economic future of Nebraska is encouraging, especially in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, and services. Agriculture and related activities, however, still dominate. Agriculture Nebraska ranks among the leading U. S. states in the value of total farm marketings, and nearly half of Nebraska's labor force is employed, directly or indirectly, in agriculture. Among the homesteaders that early settled in the state, corn was a major crop. It has remained a leading farm commodity of the state, along with cattle, hogs, and soybeans. Other leading farm products are sorghum, hay, wheat, oats, barley, and rye. Most farms in the state are rather large, but Nebraska farms still tend to be owned by single persons or families. Manufacturing Nebraska's major industries are agriculturally based, engaged in the processing of meat, grain, and dairy products. Labor-intensive industries are drawn to the state's skilled, low-cost labor pool. Manufacturing has become increasingly diversified, with an emphasis on electric and electronic equipment, nonelectrical machinery, and chemicals. The major manufacturing areas of the state are the Omaha, Lincoln, and the Sioux City (Iowa) regions. Mining Petroleum, discovered in Nebraska in 1939, is the leading mineral produced in the state. The production of crude oil centers in the state's southwest, as well as the southwest panhandle. Other minerals exploited are sand and gravel, found in eastern Nebraska; stone; and natural gas, also found in the southwest panhandle. Energy The low average cost of electricity in the state is a result of a user-owned, nonprofit system of power generation and transmission. Leading energy sources in the state are petroleum, natural gas, coal, and nuclear power. Transportation and Tourism The central location of Nebraska and the national road network that crosses it have facilitated tourism in the state. Omaha is an important rail center with several railroads and is a regional hub of air transportation. Omaha's Eppley Airfield is the state's busiest airport. Nebraska has numerous state parks and recreation areas. Most tourists visit Nebraska while on their way to either eastern or western parts of the country. GOVERNMENT A state constitution was adopted on Oct. 12, 1875, and revised by a 1919-20 constitutional convention and through numerous amendments since that time. Nebraska is unique in that, since 1934, it has had a unicameral legislature. It consists of 49 nonpartisan members serving 4-year terms, and it meets every year for a session of 60 days in even-numbered years and 90 days in odd-numbered years. Members of the executive branch are elected to 4-year terms on partisan ballots. Justice is administered by a supreme court and by district, trial, county, and municipal courts, as well as certain special courts. The 93 counties are administered by either boards of supervisors or by boards of commissioners. Nebraska has a few hundred incorporated villages. The minimum population required for incorporation is 100, but because of population decline in some urban centers, some of the incorporated communities have fewer than 100 residents. HISTORY Archaeological explorations and excavations indicate the presence of prehistoric humans in Nebraska as early as 9000 BC. The \TPawnee\t Indian tribe was one of the first groups to be recorded in the area. Other Indian groups found by European explorers were the \TArapaho\t, \TCheyenne\t, \TOmaha\t, \TOto\t, and \TSioux\t. With the introduction of the horse by the Spanish, buffalo hunting supplemented the primitive crop agriculture of pre-European times. It is estimated that the Indian population numbered about 40,000 at the time of the earliest white settlement. Pedro de Villasur and a party of Spanish soldiers were the first Europeans known to have reached Nebraska (1720), though some French fur traders and trappers had ventured upstream on the Missouri River by about 1700. The first Europeans to cross the state were probably Paul and Pierre Mallet, who traversed nearly the entire length of the modern state in their journey from the Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico, in 1739. Spain, France, and Great Britain struggled for possession of the Nebraska region, basing their claims on discoveries and explorations. France ceded all claims west of the Mississippi River to Spain in 1763, at the close of the Seven Years' War. Nebraska remained part of Spain until 1801, when Napoleon purchased the area for France. In 1803, Thomas Jefferson acquired the Louisiana Territory, which included present-day Nebraska, for the United States. After the \TLouisiana Purchase\t President Jefferson requested that a geographical expedition of the area be undertaken. The \TLewis and Clark Expedition\t crossed the eastern edge of what was to become Nebraska. Journals of the expedition were perhaps the first authoritative sources of geographic information about the state. Later expeditions led by Zebulon Montgomery \Tpike\t (1806) and Stephen H. \TLong\t (1820) furnished additional information about the region. It is generally acknowledged that Long's report was responsible for the questionable image of the area west of the Missouri River, describing it as unfit for cultivation and part of the "Great American Desert." Because of the unfavorable desert image, the Great Plains were at first passed by in favor of settlement areas farther west. Numerous traders, trappers, missionaries, and travelers moved across the state between 1800 and 1840. The famous \TOregon Trail\t followed the Little Blue and Platte rivers through Nebraska and was used by thousands of wagon trains from 1830 to 1870. The Mormon Trail to Utah and the Denver Trail to Colorado also crossed the area. From 1850 to 1860 steamboat navigation on the Missouri River was at its peak, only to fall off with the advent of rail travel in the 1860s. Nebraska was part of the Territory of Indiana from Oct. 1, 1804, to July 4, 1805. From that time until Dec. 7, 1812, it was part of the Louisiana Territory. It then became part of the Territory of Missouri until 1821, when Missouri became a state and Nebraska part of an unorganized region usually called "Indian country." On June 30, 1834, the U.S. Congress defined the boundaries of this Indian country and passed the Indian Intercourse Act, which excluded white settlers and formalized relations between the United States and the Indians. The Indian superintendent at St. Louis was made governor of the area. The first congressional bill organizing the territory, the \TKansas-Nebraska Act\t, was passed in 1854, and the first session of the territorial legislature met Jan. 16, 1855. Shortly after the Civil War the population of Nebraska and the Great Plains began to grow rapidly, from 2,732 in 1854 to 122,993 in 1870. Statehood was finally achieved in 1867. The \TPopulist party\t controlled Nebraska's state government from 1890 to 1900. From that period until the 1930s, Nebraska's agricultural economy flourished. The Depression of the 1930s, coupled with a series of drought years, was especially severe in Nebraska. During the resultant \TDust Bowl\t exodus, Nebraska lost nearly 4.5% of its population, a decrease that was not offset until the 1950s. Since World War II the economy has revived, and farm sizes have increased, although their numbers have decreased. The economic recovery is largely due to the spectacular growth in irrigation. It is estimated that by 1990, Nebraska will be the leading state in irrigated farmland, a position that should improve the state's economy even further in a world experiencing rapid population growth. In addition, the comprehensive plan for the Missouri River Basin should benefit Nebraska with flood control, navigation, irrigation, hydroelectric power, and soil conservation programs. The service sector of the state's economy shows increased strength, a healthy sign of diversification from economic dominance by agriculture. The state's recent economic gains and favorable climate for future development attest to the vigor of the residents of Nebraska and their perseverance in the past. Philip E. Vogel Bibliography: Creigh, Dorothy W., Nebraska: A Bicentennial History (1977); Federal Writers' Project, Nebraska: A Guide to the Cornhusker State (1939; repr. 1979); Lawson, Merlin P., et al., Climatic Atlas of Nebraska (1977); Lonsdale, Richard E., ed., Economic Atlas of Nebraska (1977); Miewald, Robert D., ed., Nebraska Government and Politics (1984); James C., The Nebraska Question, 1852-1854 (1953); Nicoll, Bruce, ed., Nebraska: A Pictorial History (1975); Olson, James C., History of Nebraska, 2d ed. (1966); Wykstra, Ronald A., The Nebraska Economy: Manpower and Economic Growth (1968).