Minnesota, located close to the center of the North American continent, contains the northernmost point in the continental United States, the Northwest Angle. Much of the boundary of Minnesota is outlined by natural waterways. A large portion of the north and northeast is separated from Manitoba and Ontario by Lake of the Woods, Rainy River, Pigeon River, Lake Superior, and numerous other lakes that stretch in an almost unbroken chain. Lake Superior and the Saint Croix and Mississippi rivers follow most of its eastern boundary with Wisconsin; to the west, the Red River of the North and Big Stone and Traverse lakes separate Minnesota from the Dakotas. The state is bordered by Iowa to the south. It has been said that Minnesota's way of life seems permanently positioned in the middle of the American dream. This dream brought many immigrants to the state, bending people to the plow with the promise of a life of plenty, peace, and dignity in return for their honest labor. Minnesota received its name from the largest river that lies wholly within its boundaries; the Sioux called the river the Minnesota, meaning "clouded water," because of the light-colored clay it carried in suspension. LAND AND RESOURCES More than two-thirds of Minnesota is nearly flat or gently rolling, with a mean elevation of 366 m (1,200 ft) above sea level. This central region is surrounded by areas of dissimilar topography. In the northeast, both the lowest and highest points in Minnesota are found in Arrowhead Country, named for its triangular shape. This area is structurally part of the \TCanadian Shield\t, underlaid with granite, gneiss, and schist. The flat prairies of the northwest and west, now the eastern plain of the \TRed River of the North\t, were once part of the ancient Lake Agassiz basin and overlie limestone and shale. To the southeast, the \TDriftless Area\t is marked by incised streams and cross-cutting valleys. The state's eastern boundaries exhibit remnants of ancient volcanic activity. During the Pleistocene Epoch all but the southeastern corner of the state was subjected to the action of four major glaciers. The last advance is largely responsible for the present physical landscape. Central Minnesota has the state's most complete pattern of moraines and accompanying outwash sediments. Soils The prairie soils of the the southern part of the state and the chernozems of western Minnesota are the most fertile. The northeast corner of the state is dominated by lithosols that have developed over resistant rock formations. Much of this area is forested and unsuitable for cultivation. Most of northern Minnesota's soils are podzols that developed under forest vegetation in a cool, humid climate. Drainage Three major drainage basins are found within Minnesota. Only 9% of the state is drained by eastward-flowing streams emptying into Lake \TSuperior\t. The Red, Rainy, and other northerly flowing rivers drain 34%, and the \TMississippi River\t system, 57%. The Mississippi begins its 3,779-km (2,348-mi) course to the Gulf of Mexico at Lake Itasca in Itasca State Park. Minnesota's automobile license plates claim the state is the "Land of 10,000 Lakes." Lakes with areas of 4 ha (10 acres) or more actually number 15,291. Within the state are about 40,200 km (25,000 mi) of streams and approximately 145,000 km (90,000 mi) of lake and river shoreline. Climate A humid continental climate dominates the state, but considerable variation occurs within its borders. Minnesota is susceptible to outbreaks of cold polar air from the north as well as occasional warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico. The January mean temperature ranges from -17 deg C (1 deg F) in the northwest to -9 deg C (16 deg F) in the southeast. July mean temperatures vary between 15 deg C (59 deg F) in the northeast and 23 deg C (74 deg F) in the southwest. Precipitation amounts of 813 mm (32 in) in the extreme southeast decrease to 483 mm (19 in) in the northwestern corner. Although snow and rain are equally common in Minnesota, most of the precipitation falls as rain, averaging 635 mm (25 in) yearly. The average annual snowfall of 1,143 mm (45 in) would equal 114 mm (4.5 in) of liquid. Vegetation and Animal Life Minnesota is located in a transition zone for vegetation. The natural vegetation of the south and west was once extensive grasslands. Approximately 40% of the state was covered with prairie grass with gallery forests lining the watercourses and the edges of lakes. Forested areas of the state were of two major types: in the east central and northern parts lay forests of spruce, balsam, and pines, whereas between the grasslands and the coniferous northern woods grew hardwood forests. Minnesota is famous for its hunting and fishing opportunities, retaining more than 20% of its area for public hunting grounds and wetlands. In the remote northern areas moose are seen, while deer and smaller wild animals can be found throughout the state. More than 140 fish species have been sighted in Minnesota's waters, and both commercial fishing and sports fishing are conducted in the state. PEOPLE Since the 1950s, Minnesota has grown at a slower rate than the nation as a whole, but among the 12 states that make up the U.S. Midwest region, Minnesota is the fastest-growing state. The state has less than 2% of the total U.S. population. The heaviest population concentration is found in the southeastern part of the state near \TMinneapolis\t and \TSaint Paul\t, but other major concentrations are found in \TDuluth\t, \TRochester\t, and Bloomington--all with populations exceeding 50,000. Minnesota's birthrate is about the same as the United States average, but the state's death rate is lower than the national average. Minnesota ranks second to Hawaii in the estimated life expectancy of its population. The major nationality groups in Minnesota reflect the predominantly European background of the population. Other than the Indian, the Yankee, and Canadian groups, the origins of most Minnesotans can be traced directly to European countries. Sweden, Norway, and Germany have been the dominant sources of immigrants. Racial minorities form a small part of the total population. Education In 1849 the territorial legislature enacted the first law pertaining to education. Common schools were to be open to all persons between the ages of 4 and 21 years; townships were to be divided into school districts when the district contained more than five families. To support the schools, the law prescribed a general sales tax supplemented by a portion of funds collected from licenses and fines. In 1851 only three schools, privately operated, existed in Minnesota, with an enrollment of 250 children. Today, the state Board of Education, appointed by the governor with approval of the Senate, directs the Department of Education. Children must attend school from age 7 to age 16. Minnesotans are well educated, with one of the lowest high school-dropout rates in the nation. Institutions of higher education located in the state range from the University of Minnesota, with its large enrollment (see \TMinnesota, state universities of\t), to smaller private institutions such as \TCarleton College\t, MACALESTER \Tcollege\t, and \TSt. Olaf College\t. Contributions to the nation's culture have been made by many noted Minnesotans. Sinclair \TLewis\t, born in Sauk Centre, used his home town as a model for his famous novel, Main Street. The novelist F. Scott \TFitzGerald\t and architect Cass \TGilbert\t were also Minnesota natives. The Minneapolis-Saint Paul area is the home of the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, the Science Museum of Minnesota, and the Walker Art Center. The Tyrone Guthrie Theater provides entertainment in the performing arts, and the Minnesota Symphony Orchestra is world-renowned. Communications The metropolitan area of Minneapolis and Saint Paul dominates the news media in the state. Of particular broadcasting interest in the 1980s was the national impact made by Minnesota public radio's Garrison \TKeillor\t and his tales of the fictitious Minnesota town, Lake Wobegon. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Any description of Minnesota solely in terms of topographical features would be sadly wanting--the state is far from simply a wilderness or vacation haven. It is highly industrialized, with many of the nation's giant business enterprises operating within its borders. In the past 25 years manufacturing has displaced farming as the major source of income. Agriculture Minnesota is among the leading U. S. farm states, ranking high in the production of hay, oats, sugar beets, flaxseed, spring wheat, sunflower seed, soybeans, and rye. The state is a leading producer of milk, much of which is made into cheese and butter. beef cattle, turkeys, and hogs area also valuable sources of farm income. Major farm areas are in the south, southwest, and the Red River Valley. Forestry Forestry is also an important industry. Because more than half of Minnesota's commercial forestland is publicly owned, the state has the opportunity to determine the pattern competing land uses will take. Mining The state is the nation's primary source for domestic iron ore and low-grade taconite. The \TMesabi Range\t supplies two-thirds of domestic production. Minnesota began taconite mining on a large scale in the 1950s as deposits of the richer ores were depleted. Production subsequently shifted away from natural ore to the lower-grade taconite (rock containing 20-30% iron). Lack of demand for iron ore led to a severe slowdown in operations in 1983, but production has since increased somewhat. Mining of the ore deposits in the state is by open-pit method, a method used when the deposits are exposed or near ground surface. Limestone is found along the banks of the Mississippi and its tributaries. The finest granite is quarried near \TSaint Cloud\t, but other deposits are found in the Minnesota Valley. The two regions produce different kinds of stone. All types are cut for building blocks, but the Saint Cloud granite is also used for monuments. Sand and gravel are also produced in the state. Manufacturing Minnesota's leading industry is the food processing industry. Other valuable manufactures are nonelectrical machinery, fabricated metals, and electrical and electronic equipment. Computers are among the state's most important products. Service companies such as insurance and financial institutions are important in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul area, and the \TMayo Clinic\t is a major employer in Rochester. Tourism Tourism is important to Minnesota. Through the state parks, recreation areas, and scenic and natural areas wind trails for snowmobiling, hiking, and cross-country skiing. Canoeing and boating are popular summer activities. National parklands include Voyageurs National Park, covering 88,178 ha (217,892 acres) along the Canadian border, Grand Portage National Monument on Lake Superior, and Pipestone National Monument in the southwest. Among other tourist attractions are the statues of Paul Bunyan and Babe in Brainerd and Bemidji and the annual Saint Paul Winter Carnival. The Minneapolis-Saint Paul area supports professional baseball, football, hockey, and soccer teams. Transportation Following the American Civil War an extensive railroad network developed in Minnesota, and today the state is served by several rail lines, including Amtrak. The state also has an interstate highway system, and a number of municipalities maintain mass transit systems. Several ports on Lake Superior and on the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers complete the transportation net. Depending on the observer's perspective, Duluth is the beginning--or the end--of the \Tsaint\t \TLawrence\t SEAWAY. The westerly tip of Lake Superior lies 2,156 km (1,340 mi) from Montreal. The state's major airport is Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport. Energy Minnesota is more dependent on petroleum than its neighboring states. Within the state substantial variation exists in the types of fuel used for home heating. Several hydroelectric plants are located on the Minnesota, Mississippi, Rainy, St. Croix, and St. Louis rivers. The state also has nuclear power plants. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Minnesota is governed under its original (1858) constitution, as amended. In 1976 the state government had 67,330 employees. Six of these, headed by the governor, are elected to the executive branch for 4-year terms. The bicameral state legislature consists of 67 senators elected for 4-year terms and 134 representatives with 2-year terms. The legislature meets in the State Capitol during odd-numbered years for a 120-day session. The state's unified court system is headed by the Supreme Court composed of 9 judges. The 72 district courts act as the major trial courts. The greater Minneapolis-Saint Paul area is under the supervision of the Metropolitan Council, extending over a 7-county region. Public services such as water and sewage are coordinated by the Council. Emigration from the center does not erode the tax base of the major city because monies are pooled for public works projects. Although strongly Republican at the time of statehood (1858), Minnesota developed potent Populist traditions in the later 19th century. The \TGranger movement\t, the \TPopulist party\t, and the \TNonpartisan League\t all attracted substantial support in Minnesota. The \TFarmer-Labor party\t, founded in 1920, became a major political force in the state. It sent two senators to Washington and elected Floyd B. Olson as governor three times (1930, 1932, 1934). In 1944 this party merged with the Democrats to form the Democratic-Farmer-Labor party. U.S. vice-presidents Hubert H. \THumphrey\t and Walter F. \TMondale\t are among the political leaders produced by the DFL. Other nationally known politicians from Minnesota include Harold \TStassen\t, three times Republican governor of the state (1939-45), Orville L. Freeman, DFL governor (1955-61) and U.S. secretary of agriculture (1961-69), and Eugene \TMcCarthy\t, a U.S. senator (1959-71) and anti-Vietnam War candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968. Today party allegiances in Minnesota tend to be split between agricultural and big-business Republicans and urban and blue-collar Democrats, operating under the DFL standard. HISTORY Whether a French or Viking explorer first entered the Minnesota area is debatable. The \TKensington Rune Stone\t, discovered near Alexandria in 1898, purports to record the visit of \TVikings\t in 1362. Continuous recorded history, however, indicates that those who opened the territory included the Frenchmen Samuel de \TChamplain\t; Daniel Greysolon, Sieur \TDuluth\t; Louis \THennepin\t; Robert Cavelier, Sieur de \TLa Salle\t; Jean \TNicolet\t; Pierre Esprit \TRadisson\t; and Medard Chouart, Sieur des Groseilliers. Through their efforts, the great northern wilderness was claimed as part of the French Empire in North America. When France yielded its North American territories to Great Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris, the Union Jack replaced the French tricolor in the territory east of the Mississippi. After the American Revolution the area became a part of the United States. The territory west of the Mississippi, previously under the sovereignty of Spain, came to the United States as part of the \TLouisiana Purchase\t. Settlement of the territory began with the building in 1819 of Fort Anthony, renamed Fort Snelling in 1825. The fort, located at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers, served as a military center and base for western exploration. The first white people to make permanent homes in Minnesota were farmers who lived in and around the fort. Many were French-Canadian voyageurs, carried west by their work in the fur trade. A few men and women had come from the east as traders, missionaries, or soldiers. Also present were a handful of Europeans--mostly Swiss and Scottish--who had fled the dangers and hardships of life in the Selkirk Colony \TRed River Settlement\t to the north. When lands of the Sioux and Chippewa were placed on sale, many families from the eastern United States settled, along with French Canadians. Germans, Swedes, and Norwegians arrived following the establishment of a land office in Saint Croix Falls in 1848. On Mar. 3, 1849, the Territory of Minnesota was created. Its northern, eastern, and southern boundaries were the same as those of today, but its western limits extended to the Missouri and White Earth rivers--encompassing most of present-day North Dakota. During the 1850s, Indians relinquished their claims to areas within the territory, and in 1858, Minnesota was admitted to the Union. The state experienced no fighting within its borders during the Civil War, but Minnesota did contribute soldiers to the Union effort. During 1862 a Sioux uprising in the state was brought about by a lack of food and money for the reservation inhabitants. (The funds and supplies had been diverted to the war effort.) A confrontation took place between four Sioux and some white settlers that resulted in the death of five whites. Apprehension among the Sioux brought about their arming for war. More than 400 settlers were killed by the Sioux within a few days. After the Sioux were captured, 306 were sentenced to death and 18 to prison terms. President Lincoln intervened and commuted the death sentences of all but 39 prisoners, thus incurring the resentment of the Minnesota settlers. The state's economy was centered on wheat farming, milling, and lumbering. Beginning in the 1880s, however, the exploitation of iron ore became significant. In 1884 the first shipment of ore was made from the Vermilion Range, followed in 1892 by extraction from the Mesabi Range. Steel production at the U.S. Steel Corporation plant in Duluth began in 1915. Twentieth-century agriculture in Minnesota has moved from a concentration on wheat growing to dairying, with stress placed on the manufacture of butter and cheese. Flour milling has been in decline because shipping grain is easier than transporting flour. The opening of the \TSt. Lawrence Seaway\t in 1959 made Duluth a world port, enabling the state's products to be shipped easily. Greater industrial development, however, has created environmental concerns. In the early 1980s, Minnesota was hurt economically by a widespread slump in farm prices but was less affected by the national recession of the early 1990s. The 1990 census revealed large increases in Minnesota's black and Indian populations, the latter apparently resulting from greater numbers claiming their Indian identity. Lawrence C. Anderson and Mike Engelhart Bibliography: \TGeneral\t: Federal Writers' Project, Minnesota: A State Guide, rev. ed. (1954); Shepard, John G., Minnesota Backroads (1990); Spadaccini, Vic, and Whiting, Karen, eds., Minnesota Pocket Data Book, 1983-84 (1983); Wechsler, Charles, Minnesota: State of Beauty (1981). \Tland\t AND \TPeople\t: Borchert, John R., and Carroll, Donald D., Minnesota Settlement and Land Use (1971); Jarchow, Merrill E., The Earth Brought Forth: A History of Minnesota Agriculture to 1885 (1949; repr. 1970); Johnston, Patricia C., Minnesota: Portrait of the Land and Its People (1987); Nelson, Lowry, Minnesota Community: Country and Town in Transition (1960). \Tgeography\t: Borchert, John R., and Yeager, Donald P., Atlas of Minnesota Resources and Settlement, rev. ed. (1969); Schwartz, George M., and Thiel, G.A., Minnesota's Rocks and Waters (1963); Waters, Thomas F., The Streams and Rivers of Minnesota (1977). \Thistory\t: Blegen, Theodore C., Minnesota: A History of the State, 2d ed. (1975); Bray, Edmund C., Billions of Years in Minnesota, 2d ed. (1985); Folwell, William W., A History of Minnesota, 4 vols. (1921-30; repr. 1956-69); Johnson, Elden, Prehistoric Peoples of Minnesota (1969; rev. ed., 1988); Lass, William E., Minnesota: A History (1977). \LPolitic\ls AND \Tgovernment\t: Chrislock, Carl H., The Progressive Era in Minnesota, 1899-1918 (1971); Minnesota, Secretary of State, The Legislative Manual of the State of Minnesota (biennial); Mitau, G. Theodore, Politics in Minnesota, 2d ed. (1970); Valelly, Richard M., Radicalism in the States: The Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party and the American Political Economy (1989);