Georgia is the largest state east of the Mississippi River. Its territory extends from the Sea Islands on the Atlantic shore to the forested mountains of the southern Appalachians. Georgia shares borders with five states, bounded on the east by South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Alabama, on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, and on the south by Florida. A distinctive feature of Georgia is the paradox of old and new--often side by side. The forces generating change throughout the American South can readily be seen in Georgia. The state has experienced major population and economic growth in recent years. During the 1980s it was among the leading population-growth states of the United States, and Atlanta emerged as the major urban center of the southeastern United States. LAND AND RESOURCES Five physiographic regions are identifiable within Georgia: the \TCumberland Plateau\t, \TBlue Ridge Mountains\t, Ridge and Valley Region, \TPiedmont Plateau\t, and Coastal Plain. Lookout Mountain and Sand Mountain in the northwest corner of Georgia are remnants of the modest synclinal structure associated with the Cumberland Plateau. The surface elevations of these plateau remnants are 450 to 550 m (1,500 to 1,800 ft). The Blue Ridge Mountains extend into northern Georgia from adjacent Tennessee and North Carolina; the highest elevations in the state are found there. The narrow valleys and forested mountains are a major recreational resource. Springer Mountain (1,164 m/3,820 ft) is the southwestern terminus of the \TAppalachian Trail\t. The Ridge and Valley region extends across northeast Georgia from Alabama to Tennessee. A group of low and open valleys 150 to 250 m (500 to 825 ft) above sea level are separated by ridges that extend 200 to 250 m (675 to 825 ft) above the valley floors. These three mountain provinces--the Cumberland Plateau, Blue Ridge Mountains, and Ridge and Valley area--as a group account for about 15% of Georgia's land area. The Piedmont is the rolling upland plain south of the mountains. The northern margin of the Piedmont has an average elevation of 360 m (1,200 ft). The Piedmont's southern margin, which follows a line from Columbus to Augusta, is at an elevation of 150 m (500 ft). Local relief on the Piedmont is normally not more than 30 to 60 m (100 to 200 ft), but several \Lmonadnock\ls exist with elevations that make them distinctive on the rolling Piedmont surface, such as Mount Yonah at 967 m (3,173 ft). The fall line is associated with the point at which the unconsolidated materials of marine origin forming the Coastal Plain overlap with the geologically older rocks of the Piedmont. In Georgia the fall line extends through the cities of Macon, Columbus, Milledgeville, and Augusta. The border area is marked by low hills--the Sand Hills--that contrast with the low relief of the Coastal Plain. The outer, or Atlantic, edge of the Coastal Plain is composed of offshore islands--including St. Simons, Jekyll, St. Catherines, Sapelo, and Cumberland--and tidal marshes and low marine terraces. One such poorly drained terrace is occupied by the \TOkefenokee Swamp\t, a national wildlife refuge. Soils The soils of Georgia are varied, depending upon topographic character, drainage, and the underlying parent material. The slopes of the three mountain regions prohibit their soils from being used for cropland agriculture. The valley soils of the Ridge and Valley Region, which are formed from limestone, are highly productive, however. Piedmont soils range from sandy loams to clay, but the rolling character of the Piedmont, in combination with the practice of intensive row cropping, has contributed to extensive and severe erosion damage. During the past four decades much of the Piedmont has been converted to grassland or forest, and the potential for continued resource destruction has been greatly reduced. The soils of the Coastal Plain are light, deep, and sandy. Climate A humid subtropical climate with mild winters and hot moist summers is characteristic of most of Georgia. The average annual precipitation varies from about 1,015 mm (40 in) in central Georgia to more than 1,900 mm (75 in) in northeast Georgia. One of two annual precipitation maxima occurs in February or March, when between 100 and 150 mm (4 and 6 in) of rain may be expected because of the high seasonal incidence of cyclonic activity over the southeastern United States. The second maximum occurs in June and July, when precipitation from thunderstorm activity may bring 100 to 180 mm (4 to 7 in) monthly. The number of summer days when the temperature exceeds 32 deg C (90 deg F) are numerous, but in the mountain areas and the hilly Piedmont cool evenings bring welcome relief. Winters are mild, but significant variation occurs from south to north in Georgia. Snow cover lasting more than one or two days or exceeding 50 mm (2 in) occurs only in the mountainous fringe of north Georgia. The great day-to-day variability in winter weather is caused by the interaction of polar and subtropical air masses. Atlanta's extreme low temperatures are rarely below -10 deg C (14 deg F). Vegetation and Animal Life Forest, Georgia's most common landscape component, covers about 65% of the state; forest area has increased by more than 10,000 sq km (3,860 sq mi) since the 1930s. Complexes of longleaf and slash pines cover most of the Coastal Plain, and loblolly and shortleaf pines forest the Piedmont. A forest of oak and pine is dominant on the upper Piedmont, changing to oak and hickory forest in the mountains. The declining acreage for cropland has allowed extensive forest regrowth of pine. Georgia has a thriving wildlife population. Bears are limited mainly to the mountain regions and Okefenokee Swamp, but deer, squirrel, raccoon, and bobcat are numerous throughout the state in a habitat enhanced by the extensive forest and grassland. Many of the rivers, reservoirs, and coastal bays and thousands of farm ponds are available for recreational purposes. Lake Sidney Lanier, northeast of Atlanta, is the largest water body in the state. Bass, crappie, bream, and catfish are sought by freshwater-fishing enthusiasts. Drainage Most of Georgia's major river systems have headwaters in the uplands of north Georgia. The \TSavannah\t \Triver\t follows much of Georgia's eastern boundary, and the Altamaha system drains eastern Georgia to the Atlantic. The \TChattahoochee\t and Flint rivers join the Appalachicola after draining much of western Georgia. Numerous dams have been constructed for power, flood control, and recreational purposes. Large areas of the Coastal Plain experience poor drainage, and rivers crossing this area are generally sluggish. The humid climate and limited use of water resources in south Georgia, however, furnish a basis for substantial future agricultural and industrial growth. In southwestern Georgia \Laquifer\ls underlay the soil and make irrigation possible. PEOPLE Georgia's resident population was 6,478,216 at the time of the 1990 census, having grown by more than a million people since 1980. Although the state's overall population density is somewhat higher than the national average, there is considerable variation within Georgia, and density is lower in most areas of the south Georgia plains and the northern mountains. Population growth is increasingly accentuating the regional differences, as most growth occurs in north Georgia--in the Atlanta and southeastern coastal zone areas. \TAtlanta\t, Georgia's capital and largest city, functions as a wholesale and retail center and as the southeastern regional commercial center. Growth in the Atlanta area has been rapid for several decades. Nearly 45% of the state's total population lives within Atlanta's metropolitan area. \TAugusta\t, \TColumbus\t, and \TMacon\t--the fall line cities--each has a metropolitan population of more than 200,000, as does historic \TSavannah\t, Georgia's oldest city and a major Atlantic port. \TAlbany\t, \TAthens\t, Gainesville, Rome, Valdosta, and Waycross are smaller cities that serve as regional centers. Among Georgia's rural population about 40% is not economically involved in farming; many work in factories. Many of Georgia's early settlers came from Virginia and the Carolinas, bringing with them the plantation concept and slaves and thereby establishing early a demographic pattern that included large numbers of blacks as well as whites. In 1990 there were 1,746,565 African Americans in Georgia, comprising 27% of the total population. The Baptists constitute the largest religious denomination in Georgia; Methodists, Presbyterians, and Roman Catholics are other religious groups with significant memberships. Education A system of statewide elementary and high schools is supported with state and local tax funds. The system includes 28 vocational-technical schools distributed throughout the state. Public higher education is organized as the University System of Georgia and includes 11 junior colleges, 12 four-year colleges, and 4 universities. (See \TGeorgia, state universities and colleges of\t.) Tourism and Recreation Tourism is a major economic activity. Georgia has numerous historic sites: Savannah, an early settlement center and a planned city built to exacting specifications; Atlanta and environs, the site of major Civil War battles; and the coastal zone with its relics of former plantation systems. Automobile traffic that crosses the state en route to Florida adds to the tourism income. The mountains and the Sea Islands are contrasting environments for the many summer vacationers from Georgia and surrounding states. Georgia has many state-supervised recreation areas. Georgia's growth and progress in the past two decades is nowhere seen more sharply than in Atlanta and its environs. The city now has a symphony orchestra; boasts professional baseball, football, and basketball teams; and has become a major convention and culture center. Atlanta's location at the junction of several interstate highways at the southern end of the Appalachians makes it a crossroads city, benefiting from exchange and interaction with other regions. The folk art and culture of the mountain people have fostered crafts fairs and handwork exhibits, often in conjunction with music festivals. \TEtowah Mounds\t, near Cartersville in northwestern Georgia, are remnants of prehistoric Indian constructions. To the west President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Little White House in \TWarm Springs\t is now a national shrine. Tybee Lighthouse, still standing at the mouth of the Savannah River, was originally built in 1736 by James Oglethorpe; its replacement was reconstructed after the Civil War in 1867. \TStone Mountain\t, with its Confederate memorial, is east of Atlanta. Georgia's communications needs are served by daily and weekly newspapers. Numerous television and radio stations broadcast from within the state. ECONOMY Manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade account for the largest segments of nonfarm employment in Georgia. Although agriculture no longer dominates employment in Georgia, many workers still are engaged in industries related to farming and farm products. Poultry production is a major industry, with most processing plants centered near Gainesville in north Georgia. The mean per capita income in Georgia is somewhat below the national average. Agriculture Although greatly reduced as a source of employment, agriculture has undergone a major transformation. Georgia agriculture is modern and mechanized, and the former strong economic dependence upon cotton has been replaced with a diversified agricultural economy based upon the production of soybeans, corn, peanuts, tobacco, poultry, cattle, and horticultural and orchard crops. Much of Georgia's crop production is concentrated on the Inner Coastal Plain. The Piedmont, once an established farming region, is now characterized by farmers who operate small part-time cattle farms but who earn most of their income from employment in towns and cities. Forestry The extensive pine forests of the state are the basis for an important sector of the economy. Sawtimber and pulpwood for paper manufacturing are produced in large quantity. Georgia's forests are also noted as sources of tars and resins. Mining Although Georgia does not have a major mineral base, building materials such as granite and marble are quarried throughout the state. Kaolin, a fine-grained clay found in the central area of the state, is a major export. Manufacturing Manufacturing in the South was a minor economic activity until well after the Civil War. In the late 19th century, however, new attitudes toward economic development, a surplus of agricultural labor, and cotton and power resources lured textile manufacturers from New England to the Piedmont. Poor and landless white tenants have taken advantage of this employment opportunity, but the surplus black agricultural laborers have joined the steady migrant stream to the North. In the post-World War II years Georgia has undergone an economic revolution. Textile manufacturing continues, particularly the carpet industry of northwest Georgia, and apparel manufacturing has become a leading Georgia industry, primarily located in the many small towns and cities of rural areas. Other industries include transportation equipment, (automobiles and aircraft), pulp and paper, food processing, and electrical machinery. Transportation The first settlements in the state developed along the waterways leading from the coast; after a decline, water transport is again gaining importance. Railroad and truck transportation serve the bulk of the state's transit needs. Airlines, primarily in the Atlanta area, provide access to all major national cities. Energy The Tennessee Valley Authority power system does not serve the state, so Georgia must import fuel. Its proximity to the Appalachian coal field is advantageous. Hydroelectric plants along rivers contribute to the power needs of Georgia. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Georgia's tenth state constitution became effective in 1983 and provides for a government composed of legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The executive branch is headed by a governor who holds office for a 4-year term. Other elected officers include a lieutenant governor, attorney general, comptroller general, commissioner of agriculture, commissioner of labor, secretary of state, and state superintendent of schools. Legislative power is granted to a General Assembly that is composed of the Senate and House of Representatives. The judicial system includes a supreme court, a court of appeals, and superior courts. Local government is vested in cities and counties. Georgia is divided into 159 counties, most of which are governed by boards of commissioners. From 1917 to 1962, Georgia's General Assembly members were elected through a county-unit primary system that allocated legislative seats on the basis of county population size. The least populous counties were represented by one legislator, while the eight most urban counties were allotted three representatives. This system gave the rural areas of the state an inordinately great opportunity to control legislation. In 1962 the U.S. Supreme Court declared the county-unit system to be unconstitutional. Since that decision, seats have been apportioned solely on the basis of population, independent of the number per county. Georgia has been a Democratic state since the period following Reconstruction. Local and state politics remain overwhelmingly Democratic, but on the national level extremely liberal Democrats have been rejected by the basically conservative Georgia voters. Former governor Jimmy \TCarter\t, a Democrat, was president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. U. S. Senator Sam Nunn, a Democrat elected in 1972, is chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee. HISTORY The earliest known inhabitants of present-day Georgia are thought to have been \TMound Builders\t, predecessors of the \TCherokee\t and \TCreek\t Indians inhabiting the area at the time of European arrival. Hernando \Tde Soto\t crossed Georgia in 1539-40, vainly searching for precious metals and gems, but he established no settlements on the mainland. Savannah, the first European settlement in Georgia, was established in 1733 by James \TOglethorpe\t--a British general and member of parliament--for economic and philanthropic reasons. King George II of England granted a charter to Oglethorpe in order to provide a new home for the poor of England. In 1752 the trustees turned over control of the colony to the royal government. Georgia became actively involved in the \TAmerican Revolution\t in 1778 when the British captured Savannah. This seizure was followed by the eventual British seizure of all Georgia except for Wilkes County, northwest of Augusta. Settlement had first expanded along the coastal zone and Sea Islands. Interior settlement occurred later, between 1770 and 1840, when settlers moved southwestward from Virginia and the Carolinas. That it took nearly seven decades after 1770 to complete the settling process of the state was in no small part due to the resistance of the Creek and Cherokee Indians. In a series of land cessions, the Creeks were pushed westward from river to river, until by 1826 all Creek Indian lands had been seized. During the following 12 years the Cherokee Indians of north Georgia--an Indian nation remarkably advanced and rapidly acculturating--were also deprived of their territory. In 1838 the federal government forcibly removed the Cherokee people to lands in western territory, an exodus that would come to be known as the "trail of tears." Portions of Georgia, such as the Pine Barrens of southeast Georgia and the southwest, remained sparsely populated until well after the Civil War. Along the coast and on the Sea Islands a black culture known locally as "Gullah" developed among the slaves tending the cotton and rice fields. The advance of settlement between 1780 and 1840 was encouraged by improved cotton-ginning technology and the increased markets for cotton in Europe. The corollary of this was an intense demand for land, for slaves, and for the removal of Indians. The expansion of the planter system not only set distinctive demographic patterns but established a social, economic, and political structure that prevailed in the state well into the 20th century. The \TCivil War\t was a period of disruption and destruction in Georgia. The Union army of General William Tecumseh \TSherman\t crossed the state in 1864. After burning Atlanta in November of that year, he and his 60,000 men moved eastward, reaching Savannah in 29 days and leaving devastation in their wake. During \TReconstruction\t the Georgia legislature's refusal to ratify the 14th AMENDMENT placed the state under the military rule. Georgia was readmitted to the Union in 1870. Although slavery was declared illegal, planters and ex-slaves adopted a tenancy system that kept many blacks and whites in poverty until the system's demise after World War II. In addition, few late 19-century European immigrants coming to the United States settled in Georgia, leaving the prevailing social system undisturbed. The decade of the 1920s was significant in Georgia's history because of the rapidity with which agriculture declined in the state. Boll weevil infestations during the period virtually destroyed the cotton crops, forcing workers off the land. The out-migration from the farms and from the state as a whole exceeded any movement into Georgia, but the population continued to increase because of a high birthrate. The great northward migration during this century, however, reduced the black population from the 47% of 1900 to 27% in 1990. The post-World War II era has been one of economic development and new social attitudes--amounting to an economic and social revolution. Business has greatly expanded and many new jobs have been attracted to Georgia, especially the Atlanta area. The state continued to prosper through the 1980s, a decade that saw setbacks in some other U.S. regions. In 1990 Atlanta was chosen to host the 1996 Olympic Games. The \Tcivil rights\t movement and its achievements in the 1960s have particularly altered urban life in Georgia. Blacks have united to become a political force in Georgia's cities. Indeed, black mayors have dominated the Atlanta political scene since the early 1980's. James S. Fisher Bibliography: Bartley, Numan V., The Creation of Modern Georgia, 2d ed. (1990); Coleman, Kenneth, A History of Georgia (1977); Garrison, Webb B., Oglethorpe's Folly: The Birth of Georgia (1982); Hepburn, Mary A., Local Government in Georgia (1986); Hodler, Thomas W., and Schretter, Howard A., The Atlas of Georgia, ed. by Rebecca McCarthy (1986); Saye, Albert B., Constitutional History of Georgia, 1732-1968, rev. ed. (1970).