Vermont is the northwesternmost and second largest of the New England states. Its name is derived from the French phrase monts verts, "green mountains," just as its capital, \TMontpelier\t, is named for the French city of Montpellier. Samuel de Champlain in 1609 was the first European to explore the region, and Lake Champlain in the northwestern part of the state bears his name. To the east the Connecticut River follows Vermont's 322-km (200-mi) border with New Hampshire. Vermont is bordered by Massachusetts on the south, New York on the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec on the north. The only New England state without a seacoast, Vermont traditionally has been the region's most important agricultural state. Since World War II, however, Vermont's economy has become increasingly diversified, with recreation and manufacturing assuming greater importance. The first European settlement in present-day Vermont was in 1666, when Pierre de St. Paul, sieur de la Motte, constructed a blockhouse on Isle la Motte in Lake Champlain. The settlement was temporary, however, and the first permanent settlement was by the English in 1724 at Fort Dummer (present-day Brattleboro). Vermont was admitted to the Union as the 14th state on Mar. 4, 1791, after having existed as an independent republic for 14 years. LAND AND RESOURCES Vermont's highest point, Mount Mansfield (1,339 m/4,393 ft), lies about 30 km (19 mi) almost due east of Burlington. The lowest elevation is along Lake Champlain, which lies at 29 m (95 ft) above sea level and drains northward into the St. Lawrence River. Vermont has 80 peaks exceeding 900 m (3,000 ft). Occupying much of northwestern Vermont, the Champlain Valley lies quite flat close to the lake and was in fact at various times an old lake or seabed during the periods of higher water levels brought about by Pleistocene glaciation. Heavy clay soils mantle much of the area, often making drainage a problem. Toward the mountains to the east, relief gradually increases, and dairy farming gives way to other land uses. The narrow Valley of Vermont, located south of the Champlain Valley, is traversed by U.S. Route 7 extending from Bennington in the south to Brandon in the north. The valley was a major settlement route into Vermont, and marble is quarried in the north. The Taconic Mountains extend along the border with New York west of the Valley of Vermont. The highest summit is Mount Equinox near Manchester (1,163 m/3,816 ft). Slate is quarried along the western side. To the east of the valleys and extending the entire length of the state, forming its backbone, are the \TGreen Mountains\t. The mountains occasionally separate into two parallel ranges, and the western summits are higher. The largest and also most diverse physical region in Vermont, the Vermont Piedmont, occupies most of the eastern portion of the state and includes the valleys of the White, West, and Black rivers, all of which drain into the Connecticut. With elevations less than 600 m (2,000 ft), the piedmont was an important area of early hill farming. Most farms have long been abandoned, and much of the land has reverted to forestry and recreational uses, although dairy farms still exist. The Northeastern Highlands region, often referred to as the Northeast Kingdom, is a small, wild, and isolated mountainous area north of St. Johnsbury. It is geologically closely related to New Hampshire's nearby White Mountains. The highest summit is Gore Mountain (approximately 1,000 m/3,330 ft), and nearly all of the region lies above 600 m (2,000 ft). Soils Although Vermont soils generally are acid podzol and podzolic, local relief differences result in wide variations. At higher elevations glacial erosion has removed most surface material, and soils are thin or totally lacking. At the same time, substantial deposits of glacial gravels are found on the sides of lower valleys, and lake-bottom clays predominate in several larger basins such as the Champlain Valley and in the vicinities of Newport, Stowe, and Bennington. Nowhere are soils particularly fertile. Rivers and Lakes Streams originating in the uplands of the state drain in three directions. Much of the water from southwestern Vermont flows into the Hudson River; runoff in western Vermont drains into Lake Champlain (see \TChamplain, Lake\t), and thence into the St. Lawrence; and eastern Vermont lies within the \TConnecticut River\t drainage basin. The longest river in Vermont, Otter Creek in the Champlain Valley, extends only about 160 km (100 mi). Other larger streams are the Winooski, Lamoille, and Missisquoi rivers, all draining into Lake Champlain. After Lake Champlain (total area, 1,270 sq km/490 sq mi)--which is shared by New York State and Canada and is one of the largest freshwater lakes in the United States--Vermont's largest lake is Lake Memphremagog, partly in Canada. Climate Because of its inland location, Vermont receives little climatic impact from the Atlantic Ocean. An exception is the northeaster, which develops from low-pressure systems off the coast of Maine and generates moist northeastern airflow over the region, in the winter often bringing heavy snowfall to higher elevations. Also, because of its closer proximity to the Atlantic, southeastern Vermont tends to receive more precipitation than the sheltered Champlain Valley. Precipitation patterns mostly reflect elevation. The Champlain Valley receives an average of 813 mm (32 in) annually, whereas Somerset, at an elevation of 634 m (2,080 ft) in the Green Mountains of southern Vermont, receives more than 1,321 mm (52 in), and mountain summits even more, with snowfall totals of 3,810 mm (150 in) not uncommon. Temperature is also influenced by elevation and inland location. The average January temperature for the state is -8 deg C (18 deg F), whereas the July temperature averages 19 deg C (67 deg F). Temperatures cooler than these persist at higher elevations, however, and somewhat warmer temperatures prevail in the valleys. Rutland, in the Champlain Valley, has an average temperature in January of -6 deg C (21 deg F) and in July of 21 deg C (70 deg F). Seasonal extremes prevail because of the lack of any significant marine influence. The record low temperature for Vermont is -46 deg C (-50 deg F); the record high of 41 deg C (105 deg F) occurred at Vernon on July 4, 1911. Growing seasons in the Champlain Valley are 150 days or more, but at higher elevations and in enclosed valleys some marginal farms have a growing season of only 90 days or even less. Vegetation and Animal Life Most of Vermont supports a natural vegetation of northern hardwoods, primarily birch, beech, and maple. Evergreens, especially balsam fir and spruce, predominate at higher elevations, often above 600 m (2,000 ft), and patches of alpine tundra are found on the summits of Mount Mansfield and Camels Hump. White cedar is found in the Champlain Valley, as are stands of oak and hickory. Currently about 70% of Vermont is forested, compared with only 30% a century ago, when farms were much more widespread. Subclimax white pine often covers pastures abandoned for 75 years or more. Although the white-tailed deer is the primary sport animal in the state, weasels, shrews, red foxes, Canadian lynx, bobcats, beavers, porcupines, and snowshoe rabbits also abound. Fishers, a species of marten, are becoming common once again, as are coyotes. Moose occasionally enter the state. The last panther was shot about 1900, but sightings persist. About 300 black bears are shot annually. Spruce grouse and partridge furnish good hunting in autumn, and wild turkeys have been established in the southwestern part of the state. Poisonous snakes are very rare, although the numerous places with names such as Snake Mountain and Rattlesnake Hill suggest that this was not always the case. Environment Because of its proximity to large urban areas of the Northeast, Vermont has been experiencing considerable pressure on its natural resources. In response, the legislature in 1970 passed one of the nation's most comprehensive environmental protection laws, Act 250 (Vermont Land Use and Development Law), putting Vermont, along with Oregon, to the fore in protecting its environment. PEOPLE The population of Vermont (1990 resident census) is 562,758. In 1990 less than 25% of Vermont's inhabitants were classed as urban; the remainder, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, were nonmetropolitan residents. Thus Vermont was among the most rural states in the country. A refinement of the rural figures, however, shows that of this population only a small minority are rural farm dwellers. Most of the state's population live in places with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants or in isolated rural dwellings--often former farms that are now nonfarm in function. Only since 1960 has Vermont's population been growing in any significant way. In the 110 years between 1850 and 1960 the population went from 314,120 to 389,881, an increase of 24%. Since 1960 the rate of increase has been substantially greater. This recent growth, partly related to the ease of transportation by interstate highways, has been the result of net in-migration in addition to natural increase. Vermont therefore is fast becoming an extension of the Atlantic coast urban region. Some residents even commute from the state to distant cities because no place in Vermont is more than three hours' drive from a large metropolitan area. The smaller towns and isolated rural areas, and some, but not all, larger urban places have grown in recent years. From 1980 to 1990 all of Vermont's counties experienced population growth. The fastest-growing counties were Chittenden, Franklin, Grand Isle (which has the smallest county population), Lamoille, and Orange counties. The most significant ethnic group are French Americans. In general, however, ethnic minorities are far less common in Vermont than in the more urbanized New England states. Welsh are uniquely concentrated in the slate districts in southwestern Vermont, and Italians are concentrated in the Barre granite area. Nearly 2% of the state's population is classed as black, Hispanic, Asian, or American Indian, and that small portion has a per capita income approximately on a par with the balance of the population. \TBurlington\t remains Vermont's largest city, followed by \TRutland\t, South Burlington, Barre, Essex Junction, and \TMontpelier\t. Important towns are \TBennington\t, Essex, Colchester, Brattleboro, Springfield, and St. Johnsbury. Education Vermont has a number of institutions of higher education: 6 publicly supported, the balance private. \TMiddlebury College\t and \TBennington College\t are the best known of the latter. Other private institutions include Green Mountain College in Poultney, Norwich University in Northfield, St. Michael's College in Winooski, Trinity College in Burlington, and Vermont College in Montpelier. The University of Vermont, in Burlington, was founded in 1791. Primary and secondary education is carried out by Vermont's public and private or parochial schools. Several of the latter, such as St. Johnsbury Academy, also serve as public schools for local children. Culture Because of a long tradition of tourism, Vermont is dotted with museums catering to a variety of interests. Whereas many towns in the state have small historical society museums, the Shelburne Museum possesses one of the largest collections of Americana in the country and also boasts a fine research library and the sidewheel steamer Ticonderoga. The Fleming Museum at the University of Vermont specializes in art exhibits, and the Athenaeum in St. Johnsbury is famous for its collection of 19th-century paintings. Other art museums include the Brattleboro Museum and Art Center, the Southern Vermont Art Center in Manchester, and the Wood Art Gallery in Montpelier. The American Precision Museum at Windsor exhibits the development of machine tools; and St. Johnsbury has the Fairbanks Museum and Planetarium. The Vermont Museum, in Montpelier, operated by the Vermont Historical Society, features an outstanding library and collections of Vermontiana. In addition to such amateur groups as the Lyric Theatre in Burlington, Vermont residents can see talented professional performers brought into the state by the Lane Series at the University of Vermont and by Middlebury and Bennington colleges. The state has two major symphony orchestras--the Vermont Symphony in Burlington and the Vermont Philharmonic in Barre. Historical Sites and Recreational Areas Vermont highways are dotted with more than 1,200 historic site markers. The Bennington Battle Monument dominates the town's skyline, and at East Hubbardton are the Hubbardton Battlefield and Museum. Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism, was born in Sharon; Brigham Young, also a Mormon leader, was born in Whitingham. Windsor has the Old Constitution House, where Vermont's first constitution was written in 1777. The Revolutionary War fortifications on Mount Independence in Orwell, across from Fort Ticonderoga, N.Y., have been excavated. Vermont has numerous state forests and state parks. In addition, the Green Mountain National Forest manages the 106,000 ha (262,000 acres) traversed by the \TAppalachian Trail\t and the Long Trail. The Lye Brook and Bristol Cliffs wilderness areas also afford primitive primitive solitude. Almost half the state's population participates in the annual deer-hunting season in November, and thousands of tourists visit the state's ski resorts. Communications Vermont has numerous AM and FM radio stations and several television broadcasting facilities. There are also cable television systems in operation in the state. Of the state's daily newspapers, the Burlington Free Press and the Rutland Herald (founded in 1794 as a weekly) have the largest circulations. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Although Vermont once had a largely agricultural economy, since World War II manufacturing and tourism have replaced agriculture as the state's economic mainstays. Today, manufacturing accounts for about one-quarter of Vermont's gross state product, while agriculture accounts for only 5%. Tourism has become a major industry, principally because of the development of a modern transportation system and of the state's skiing and camping facilities. Agriculture Vermont is one of the nation's most rural states yet it ranks near the bottom among U. S. states in terms of agricultural income. Although agriculture utilizes about 25% of the land, it provides only a small percentage of Vermont's gross state product. In terms of both land area under cultivation and value of products, however, Vermont is an important agricultural state in New England, particularly in the area of dairy farming. In terms of percentage of farm income derived from dairying, Vermont is a leading U. S. dairy state. Other valuable livestock products include beef cattle and calves, chickens, hogs, and turkeys. Other agricultural products are derived from a few small truck farms, generally close to urban areas. Principal products include maple syrup, Christmas trees, and potatoes, and the raising of horses is becoming increasingly significant. Eggs are produced locally, and apple orchards are important along the Lake Champlain shoreline and near Brattleboro and Bennington. Manufacturing and Energy Among Vermont's leading industry groups are electrical and electronic equipment, food and food products, nonelectrical machinery, fabricated metal products, paper and paper products, printing and publishing, and lumber and wood products. Computer equipment is processed in Essex Junction, and the Brattleboro area is important for printing and publishing. Springfield long has been a center for the machine-tool industry. About three-fourths of the state's industrial plants have fewer than 50 workers. A problem facing the state is the high cost of energy. Because the state lacks fossil-fuel resources, electrical bills in Vermont are higher than in many other states. The bulk of Vermont's electrical power is generated by nuclear energy, coming from the lone nuclear power plant at Vernon, operated by Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corporation. The second greatest source of energy comes from hydroelectricity, with the remainder coming from coal and petroleum. Considerable attention has been given to alternate energy sources, especially wood-burning generators and hydroelectric sites. In 1940 electricity was produced commercially from the wind by a generator atop Grandpa's Knob near Rutland. Forestry and Fishing About three-fourths of Vermont is covered by forestland, much of it owned by lumber companies, and about one-quarter of the state's manufacturing enterprises depend on the lumber industry. Furniture plants and small paper mills, small and medium-sized sawmills, and woodenware manufacturing plants are scattered across the state, particularly in the northeast. Maple is the most valuable hardwood tree; softwoods of value include spruce and pine. Vermont has almost no commercial fishing, but many out-of-state visitors come every year to fish the state's lakes and mountain streams. Mining At one time metals were an important source of state income, with copper being mined until 1958 in South Strafford. Today, however, mining in Vermont is limited to nonmetallic products, especially granite, marble, slate, talc, and clay. Marble is quarried in the highly metamorphosed rocks running from Rutland south to Danby; the largest granite quarries in the United States are near Barre. Transportation Because Vermont industries generally do not involve bulky raw materials or products, most freight transportation within the state is by truck. The Central Vermont, the state's leading rail carrier, however, is an important through-freight link between eastern Canada and the Atlantic seaboard. Vermont's major export product, in tonnage, is milk--all transported in trucks. Lake Champlain provides barge transportation through canals to both the south and north, with fuel oil the major commodity coming into the state. The Connecticut River is not navigable, although the first canal in the United States, now a power canal, was built (1791-1802) at Bellows Falls. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Until recently, Vermont had one of the third largest state legislatures in the country; its senate had 30 members and its house 246, representing every town and city in the state, even the 12 residents of Stratton. Under this system it was possible for 12% of Vermont's voters to elect a majority in the house. With reapportionment (1973-74) the senate still has its 30 members, from 13 senatorial districts, but the house has shrunk to 150 members. All state legislators are elected to 2-year terms, as is the governor. Vermont has counties, cities, organized towns, unorganized towns, incorporated villages, and certain other areas called gores and grants. Local government is centered in towns, which function somewhat like townships; that is, the town may have several communities and rural districts under one government. Each town has its annual \Ttown meeting\t the first Tuesday in March, at which time the governing selectmen and other town officials are elected. Each of Vermont's cities also has a local government. The county courts provide about the only political identity for Vermont's counties. In national politics Vermont became famous for its consistency in voting Republican. From the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, the state sent only Republican senators and representatives to Washington (and elected only Republican governors), and it always voted for the Republican presidential nominee. In 1964, however, Lyndon Johnson outpolled Barry Goldwater by a margin of almost 2 to 1; and in 1974 the state elected Democrat Patrick J. Leahy to the Senate. HISTORY When Samuel de \TChamplain\t traversed the lake that bears his name in 1609, Vermont was hunting territory for various \TAlgonquin\t and Iroquois tribes (see \TIroquois League\t), and Algonquin groups such as the \TAbnaki\t and \TMahican\t were probably already permanent inhabitants of western parts of the state. In any event, most Vermont Indian place names are of Algonquin origin. The Champlain Valley was recognized early as the strategic lowland corridor between the French settlements to the north and the British ones to the south. The sieur de la Motte built a blockhouse on Isle la Motte in 1666, and Captain Jacobus de Warm from Albany constructed a trading post on Chimney Point in 1690. A French fort was built on the same site in 1730, and the ruins of its chimneys that stood for years gave the place its unusual name. Of the many later British, French, and American fortifications built throughout the valley, \TCrown Point\t and \TTiconderoga\t, both in New York State, are the largest and best known. Claims of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York Under the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Massachusetts had been granted the southern half of Vermont and southwestern New Hampshire, and to protect its settlements the colony erected a series of forts along the Connecticut River. Fort Dummer, the first permanent white settlement in what was to become Vermont, was built in 1724 near the present town of Brattleboro. In 1741, however, George II ruled invalid Massachusetts's claims in Vermont and New Hampshire and fixed the northern boundary of Massachusetts at its present location. Gov. Benning Wentworth of New Hampshire saw this as an opportunity to grant lands west of the Connecticut River as far as a line about 30 km (20 mi) east of the Hudson River, the western boundary of both Massachusetts and Connecticut. In 1749 he granted the town of Bennington in southwestern Vermont, and subsequently, by 1764, he had granted a total of about 135 towns, making Vermont known as the "New Hampshire Grants." But Wentworth's real-estate activities upset Gov. George Clinton of New York, who, citing early charters to the duke of York, claimed that New York extended eastward to the Connecticut River. The king was asked to render a decision in the dispute, but wartime activities (see \TFrench and Indian Wars\t) postponed judgment until 1764, when George III and his council declared "the western banks of the river Connecticut to be the boundary line between the said two provinces of New Hampshire and New York." New York thereupon declared all of Wentworth's 135 grants null and void and began to make new grants to new grantees of lands already held and settled under New Hampshire title. Independence and Statehood Settlers were thunderstruck and angered, and most were fearful of losing their lands. Violent outbreaks against New York authority were common, especially in western Vermont, where the \TGreen Mountain Boys\t organized by Ethan \TAllen\t in 1770-71 harassed holders of Vermont land with New York titles. As the only organized military group in Vermont, the Boys later were able to support the cause of the colonies against the British, notably by helping Benedict Arnold capture the British fortress at Ticonderoga in 1775. With the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, Vermont settlers pondered their future. In a series of conventions the idea of independence was gradually accepted, and at Windsor on July 2-8, 1777, 70 delegates unanimously adopted a constitution that was almost an exact replica of Pennsylvania's. Vermont became the independent Republic of New Connecticut, alias Vermont, but the name New Connecticut was rarely used. After 14 years as an independent republic, Vermont was admitted to the Union as the 14th state on Mar. 4, 1791. The 19th Century Earliest industries in the new state included the production of potash and pear ash, largely for the Canadian market because of the northward drainage of Lake Champlain. During the War of 1812, prosperous smuggling developed between Vermont and Canada, at the same time that America's first battleship, the Saratoga, built at Vergennes, was being sent into action under Commodore Thomas \TMacdonough\t on Lake Champlain. The Battle of Plattsburgh in September 1814 gave Americans final control of the lake. The Jefferson Embargo preceding the War of 1812, the war itself, and the opening (1823) of the Champlain Canal connecting Lake Champlain to the Hudson River all contributed to Vermont's growing orientation to the south and away from the north and Canada. The canal made it possible for Vermont farmers to ship goods to New York City, stimulating agriculture and wool production, until the 1860s when dairy farming began to dominate. During the Civil War the St. Albans Raid occurred (1864) when 22 Confederate soldiers based in Quebec robbed banks in St. Albans and fled to Canada. By the early 20th century, manufacturing replaced agriculture as the dominant economic activity. A New Look Today the southern orientation of Vermont has been reinforced dramatically by a changing population and socioeconomic character of the state. Retirees, second-home owners, and new resident commuters from Connecticut, New York, and Massachusetts have settled in the state. The population is growing modestly through migration, tourism is booming, and the stability and quiet so characteristic of the first 175 years of statehood is rapidly disappearing from the Green Mountain State. Harold A. Meeks Bibliography: Allen, Richard, et al., The Vermont Geography Book (1986); Bassett, T. D., Vermont: A Bibliography of Its History (1983); Bearse, Ray, ed., Vermont, A Guide to the Green Mountain State, 2d ed. (1966); Doyle, William T., Vermont Political Tradition (1984); Duffy, John, Vermont: An Illustrated History (1985); Fuller, Edmund, Vermont, A History of the Green Mountain State (1952); Hayward, John, A Gazetteer of Vermont (1990); Hill, Ralph N., Yankee Kingdom: Vermont and New Hampshire, rev. ed. (1973; repr. 1984); Hill, Ralph N., et al., Vermont: A Special World (1969); Jacobs, Elbridge C., The Physical Features of Vermont (1950); Jones, Matt B., Vermont in the Making, 1750-1777 (1939; repr. 1968); Meeks, Harold A., The Geographic Regions of Vermont (1975) and Time and Change in Vermont (1985); Merrill, Perry H., Vermont under Four Flags (1975); Morrissey, Charles T., Vermont (1981); Roth, Randolph A., The Democratic Dilemma (1987).