The Kingdom of Thailand, located in Southeast Asia on the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, shares boundaries with Myanmar (Burma) on the west and northwest, Laos on the east and northeast, Cambodia (Kampuchea) on the southeast, and Malaysia on the south. Known also as Siam (before 1939 and from 1945 to 1949), the country was named Thailand, meaning "land of the free," in 1939. Thailand, although rich in rubber and in mineral resources, was never colonized by Europeans and has existed as a unified monarchy since 1350. The capital, \TBangkok\t, an attractive blend of Western and Thai architecture, was established in 1782. LAND AND RESOURCES Thailand consists of a compact heartland, or mainland, and a long southern peninsular extension of the \TMalay Peninsula\t. It has a maximum north-south extent of about 1,700 km (1,100 mi) and a maximum east-west extent of about 800 km (500 mi). Forests occupy approximately 28% of the land area and farmland approximately 39%. Four topographical regions are usually distinguished. Of these, the most important is the central region, which occupies almost one-third of the nation and includes the fertile alluvial lowlands of the Chao Phraya River, Thailand's "rice bowl." The central region is the historical core of Thailand, and all but one of the former capitals have been located on the banks of the Chao Phraya or its distributary to the west. Thailand's three other distinct topographical areas are the northern region, a mountainous, forested section that rises to Doi Inthanon, (2,595 m/8,514 ft), the nation's highest peak; the northeastern, or Khorat Plateau, region, an area poor in resources with unproductive lateritic soils; and the southern, or peninsular, region on the Malay Peninsula, rich in rubber and tin. The principal rivers are the \TMekong\t, which follows much of the border with Laos; the Chao Phraya in the central region; and the Mun, a tributary of the Mekong in eastern Thailand. The flow of the rivers varies considerably because of the nation's tropical monsoon climate. A distinct dry season occurs from October to February, and a wet season from March to September. Rain is heaviest along the border with Myanmar (Burma), where about 5,590 mm (220 in) falls annually, diminishing to less than 1,522 mm (60 in) over most of the Chao Phraya basin and the Khorat Plateau. Temperatures range between 24 deg and 30 deg C (75 deg and 86 deg F) throughout the year. Thailand's richest natural resource lies in its agricultural potential. The country's fertile central plain regularly produces more rice than the nation requires. Other important crops include maize, cassava, and kenaf. Thailand is one of the world's largest producers of rubber. The extensive rain forests, long a source of teak and other valuable hardwoods, are disappearing rapidly due to the demand for agricultural land. Thailand is one of the world's leading producers of tin. Other minerals include tungsten, lead, fluorite, and lignite. Petroleum deposits in central and western Thailand and extensive offshore natural gas fields in the Gulf of Thailand are being developed to reduce petroleum imports. PEOPLE Today Thailand has a population more than twice the 26,258,000 recorded in 1960. Improvements in health care have reduced the death rate, but the birthrate remains high. Ethnic Thai make up about 80% of the population; ethnic Chinese, the largest minority, about 12%; and Malays, living mainly on the peninsula, about 4%. Scattered \TMon\t communities occur in the central region and \TKhmer\t and other "hill people" in the northeast and along the border with Myanmar (Burma). Thai is spoken by approximately 97% of the population and is the official language; Malay, Chinese, Lao, and other languages are spoken by the minorities. English is used in government and commerce. Theravada Buddhism, considered the national religion, is professed by about 95%; Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, form the largest religious minority. About 30% of the population live in the Chao Phraya basin, but even in the basin's densely settled delta region population densities are generally lower than in other Asian rice-growing nations. The great majority of the total population lives in rural areas. Bangkok is the largest urban area, followed by \TChiang Mai\t in the northern region. Education has been compulsory for many years, and all children between the ages of 7 and 14 are now required to attend school. Thai culture has its roots in Hinduism and Buddhism, which reached Thailand from India after the 3d century by way of the Three Pagodas Pass in the Bilauktaung Range west of the central region. Thailand's written literature dates from the 13th century, when the modern system of Thai writing was introduced. The golden age in Thai arts occurred during the 13th and 14th centuries and is reflected at its best in the many temples (wats) surviving from that period. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY National economic planning was introduced into Thailand in 1961. Removal of regional economic disparities, diversification of the economy, industrialization, and general economic development were conceived as the goals of this program. Agriculture accounts for 16% of the gross national product. Rice is the principal crop, the basis for all Thai meals, and the leading export. It is grown mainly in the Chao Phraya basin, and irrigation during the dry season allows production of two crops a year. Rubber, another major export, is grown on small estates in the southern peninsula. Fishing is also important, but commercial logging was banned in 1989. Manufacturing accounts for about 24% of the country's gross national product. Major industries include food processing, tin and petroleum refining, and the production of textiles, garments, toys, integrated circuits, and consumer electronics. In addition, handicrafts and cigarettes are produced for market in many homes, both in cities and villages. Foreign investment in Thai industry, particularly from Japan, has increased dramatically in recent years. Most traffic moves by water or along a railway system radiating from Bangkok. Many roads are passable only in the dry season. The chief port, Bangkok, handles more than 90% of Thailand's foreign trade. The principal exports are textiles, fish, rice, and rubber. Machinery, manufactured goods, chemicals, and petroleum are important imports. Tourism provides a valuable source of foreign exchange. GOVERNMENT Thailand is a constitutional monarchy, with the king exercising power chiefly as the revered symbol of the nation. The present monarch is King Bhumibol Adulyadej, who ascended the throne after his brother's death in 1946 and was crowned king in 1950. Constitutionally, power rests with the prime minister, a cabinet, and a bicameral legislature composed of an appointed senate and elected house of representatives. In practice, however, the military has exerted great influence on civilian affairs, ruling the country intermittently after constitutional government began in 1932. The constitution of 1978, Thailand's 12th since 1932, was suspended following a military coup in 1991. HISTORY The history of Thailand before settlement by the Thais remains in dispute. Some historians believe that Mons inhabited the region and that Thailand was controlled first by the Mon kingdom of Subarnabhumi, with a capital at U Thong. The Funan Empire dominated after the 3d century; and the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati (c.550-1253), with the capital at Nakon Pathom, after c.675. Dvaravati became (11th century) a viceroyalty under the \TKhmer Empire\t. The Thais, who cultivated wet rice and who were attracted by the agricultural potential of the watery Chao Phraya basin, began migrating into the region from south China in the 11th century and established the kingdoms of Sukhothai and Chiang Mai. Sukhothai (1238-1419) overpowered Dvaravati by 1238 and, maintaining friendly relations with Chiang Mai, gained control by absorbing the Khmers. In the 14th century the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya (1350-1767) subdued Sukhothai and other small kingdoms and became a regional center of wealth and power. Portuguese envoys arrived in 1511--the first Europeans to visit Siam--but, unlike the rest of Southeast Asia, Thailand never became a European colony. Burmans destroyed the capital at Ayutthaya in 1767, and a new era, the Bangkok Period (1767-1932), began with the establishment of a new capital at Thon Buri, across the Chao Phraya from modern Bangkok. The present royal house is descended from General Chakkri, the second king of this period. In the 19th century King \TMongkut\t, or Rama IV (r. 1851-68), who ruled as an absolute monarch, began to modernize Thailand. His son \TChulalongkorn\t, or Rama V (r. 1868-1910), intensified the process by abolishing slavery and introducing railroads, telegraph services, and scientific education. This exposure to Western ideas culminated in a bloodless revolution by the Thai elite in 1932, who demanded replacement of the nation's absolute monarchy with a constitutional government limiting the powers of the king. The revolution also began the struggle between military and civilian groups for control of the government, a continuing feature of Thai political life today. A civilian government under Seni Pramoj led the nation between 1945 and 1946 after the end of Japanese control in World War II. In 1947 a bloodless military coup brought Field Marshal Phibul Songgram to power, and a similar coup in 1957 replaced him with Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat. Sarit died in 1963, and his successor, Gen. (later Field Marshal) Thanom Kittikachorn, initiated a brief return to politically fractionalized civilian rule in 1968 but replaced it with martial rule in 1971 as unrest mounted. In 1973 an interim civilian government led by Sanya Dharmasakti was installed. Elections held in 1975 failed to produce a majority, and coalition governments led by Seni Pramoj and Kukrit Pramoj, respectively, both failed to unite the divided nation. Seni was reelected to office in 1976 but later that year was ousted in a military coup led by Admiral Saangad Chaloryoo. Thanin Kraivichien was named prime minister, but he was replaced in 1977 in a bloodless coup that brought Gen. Kriangsak Chomanan to power. Elections in 1979 returned Kriangsak to office as prime minister of an elected government, but he resigned in 1980. Gen. Prem Tinsulanonda became the new prime minister and survived an attempted military coup in April 1981. After reversing his decision to retire, Prem was reappointed to a second term in 1983. Tensions between civilian politicians and the army increased in 1984 when military leaders pressed for constitutional amendments that would allow army officers to hold cabinet posts without first resigning or retiring their commissions. Although tensions between civilian politicians and the army remained, the Thai military command supported the Prem government during another unsuccessful coup attempt in 1985. Prem remained prime minister following elections in 1986. Invited to remain in office after elections in 1988, Prem unexpectedly refused. Efforts by his successor, Chatichai Choonhavan, to assert political control over the military contributed to a February 1991 bloodless coup led by Gen. Sunthorn Kongsompong. With royal approval, the military junta appointed an interim government dominated by civilians but retained the power to veto its actions. Martial law was lifted in May, and elections were to be held after the writing of a new permanent constitution. Ashok K. Dutt Bibliography: \TGeneral\t: Bunge, F. M., ed., Thailand: A Country Study (1981); Duncan, William, Thailand (1976); Keyes, Charles F., Thailand (1987); Suchart, B. R., Thailand: A Socio-Economic Profile (1989). \TPeople\t AND \Tculture\t: Lewis, Paul and Elaine, Peoples of the Golden Triangle (1984); Moore, Frank J., Thailand: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture (1974); Sharp, Lauriston, and Hanks, Lucien M., Bang Chan: Social History of a Rural Community in Thailand (1978); Skinner, G. William, ed., Change and Persistence in Thai Society (1975). \Teconomics\t: Donner, Wolf, The Five Faces of Thailand (1978); Foster, Brian, Commerce and Ethnic Differences (1982); Ingram, James C., Economic Change in Thailand, 1850-1970, rev. ed. (1971). \LPolitic\ls AND \Tgovernment\t: Bates, B. A., The End of the Absolute Monarch in Thailand (1985); Girling, John L., Thailand (1985); Samudavanija, Chai-Anan, The Thai Young Turks (1985). \Thistory\t: Landon, K. P., The Chinese in Thailand (1941; repr. 1973); Muscat, Robert J., Thailand and the United States (1990); Nakahara, Joyce, and Witton, R. A., Development and Conflict in Thailand (1971); Syamananda, Rong, A History of Thailand (1971); Terwiel, B. J., A History of Modern Thailand (1984); Vella, Walter F., Chaiyo! King Vajiravudh and the Development of Thai Nationalism (1978); Wyatt, D. K., Thailand (1985).