Ancient Rome grew from a small prehistoric settlement on the Tiber River in Latium in central Italy into an empire that encompassed all of the Mediterranean world. The Romans developed a civilization that formed the basis for modern Western civilization. The history of Rome comprises three major epochs: the kingship from the legendary foundation of Rome to 509 BC; the republic from 509 BC to 31 BC; and the empire, which survived until Rome finally fell to the German chieftain Odoacer in AD 476. The genius of the Romans lay in the military, in government administration, and in the law. Decisive but cautious imperialists, they valued crafty diplomacy as much as military discipline. The Romans conquered Greece, adopting Greek culture and transmitting it to the medieval world. Unlike the Greeks, they did not develop a philosophical theory of state and society; they were the practitioners of power and law. Roman civil law, which reached its peak under the emperors, excelled in precision of formulation and logic of thought; but it was a law of inequality and social prejudice, and that also became part of the Roman heritage. EARLY ROME: THE KINGSHIP According to legend, Rome was founded by descendants of \TAeneas\t, a Trojan who fled to Italy after the fall of Troy. Two of those descendants were \TRomulus and Remus\t, twin brothers who were abandoned at birth and suckled by a bitch wolf. The brothers founded a town on the Palatine, one of the seven hills of Rome, and ruled it jointly for a while. They eventually quarreled, and Romulus killed his brother, becoming the sole ruler. According to tradition, Rome was founded on Apr. 21, 753 BC; the ancient Romans celebrated the anniversary of that day, and it is still a national holiday in Italy. The earliest traces of human habitation in the territory of the city of Rome date from the Bronze Age (c.1500 BC), but archaeological evidence for continuity of settlement dates only from the 8th century. That evidence indicates the coexistence of \TLatins\t and \TSabines\t, two different but closely related peoples. Although the Sabines spoke Oscan, Latin appears to have been the language of Rome from its earliest beginnings. In the 7th century the Latin and Sabine villages coalesced to form a unified city on the eastern, or left, bank of the Tiber, about 24 km (15 mi) from its mouth. It was protected by strongholds on its hills, and it controlled the Tiber ford and the trade route to the central uplands. Rome soon outstripped other towns in Latium in wealth and power. The Latin Kings According to later historians, who often freely mixed facts with legend, Romulus was succeeded as king by Numa Pompilius (c.715-673 BC). Numa's reign was long and peaceful, and the foundations of Roman law and religious practices are credited to him. The fourth king, according to tradition, was Ancus Marcius (r. 641-616), who is credited with founding the plebeian class and with building the first bridge across the Tiber; the latter feat allowed the Romans to extend their dominions westward toward the sea. The Etruscan Kings In the late 7th century the \TEtruscans\t, an advanced people from Etruria, to the northwest of Latium, placed members of their royal family, the Tarquins, on the Roman throne. The Etruscan kings were Lucius \TTarquinius Priscus\t (Tarquin the Elder), Servius Tullius (r. c.578-535), and Lucius \TTarquinius Superbus\t (Tarquin the Proud). The Etruscans are generally credited with expanding the power and influence of Rome. Under their rule the marshes were drained, a large part of Latium was brought under Rome, and the Capitoline temple, the Circus Maximus, and the ancient Forum were built. According to tradition, it was Sextus Tarquinius, the son of Tarquinius Superbus, who brought down the dynasty. His rape of \TLucretia\t, a virtuous matron, supposedly turned the Romans against the Etruscan rulers. For whatever reason, the father, Tarquinius Superbus, was expelled in 510 BC. The Roman Senate (see \TSenate, Roman\t), which had originated as an advisory body to the monarch, decreed that Rome should have no more kings. THE REPUBLIC The Roman republic, founded, according to tradition, in 509 BC, had an aristocratic form of government. It was headed by the Senate and by magistrates, later called \Lconsul\ls--usually two in number--who were elected annually by the Senate. The Patricians versus the Plebeians The Senate was made up of the \Tpatricians\t--the upper class; the general body of citizens--the \Tplebeians\t--were effectively frozen out of government. In the early 5th century the plebeians revolted and forced the Senate to accept their representatives, the \Ttribunes\t, into the government. In 445 BC the ban on intermarriage between the patricians and plebeians was removed. Gradually the plebeians gained admission to virtually all state offices, winning the consulship in 366. The struggle between the orders lasted for 200 years; it came to an end in 287 when the plebiscites--the laws voted by the assembly of the plebeians--became binding on all people, plebeians and patricians alike. The main benefactors of that development were the few plebeian families that gained riches and offices and mixed with the patricians to form a new governing class, called the nobility. The Conquest of Italy Despite internal political conflict, Rome under the early republic continued to expand. The Romans warred with the Latin League (made up of other cities in Latium), but in 493, Rome concluded an alliance with the league. In time Rome dominated all Latium. With the help of the Latins the republic defeated various mountain tribes that pressed in on Latium. In 396 they destroyed the Etruscan city of Veii. A foreign calamity soon overtook Rome, however: tribes from \TGaul\t crossed the Alps, shattered the Etruscan defenses, and sacked Rome in 390. Through perseverance and luck, combined with military prowess and cunning diplomacy, the Romans were able to reestablish their position. When the other Latin cities tried to assert their independence, Rome defeated them in the Latin War (340-338) and dissolved their league. The Romans fought intermittent wars (343-290) with the \TSamnites\t. The Romans profited from the disunity among their adversaries. Although the Samnites, the Umbrians, the Etruscans, and even the Gauls belatedly united forces, they were crushed (295) at Sentinum (present Sassoferrato). Conflicts with Tarentum (modern Taranto), a Greek city in southern Italy, followed (282-272). \TPyrrhus\t, the Greek king of Epirus, came to the aid of the Tarentines, scoring two victories against Rome but suffering heavy losses. He finally departed from Italy in 275. With the capture of Tarentum in 272 the Roman conquest of Italy was nearly completed. To consolidate their hold on southern and central Italy, the Romans perfected two methods; first, they planted Roman and Latin military colonies on lands that they confiscated. Second, they awarded complete Roman citizenship only to some cities and tribes--as a reward for speedy romanization and faithfulness to Rome. Other cities and tribes had limited citizenship imposed on them; they were forced to conclude a perpetual alliance with Rome and to provide soldiers for Roman wars, and they were deprived of an independent foreign policy. In 264, Roman Italy comprised about 135,000 sq km (52,000 sq mi), inhabited by 292,000 Roman (male) citizens, and about 700,000 Roman allies. The First and Second Punic Wars After the conquest of Italy, Rome encountered new rivals abroad. \TCarthage\t, a wealthy Phoenician, or Punic, city in North Africa, had built up a maritime empire that extended to Sardinia, Corsica, and part of Sicily. Competition between Rome and Carthage over the island of Sicily, the great producer of grain for the Mediterranean area, led to the \TPunic Wars\t. The First Punic War (264-241) arose from a conflict over the Sicilian cities of Messana (modern Messina) and Syracuse. The Romans invaded Sicily, but Carthage controlled the seas around it. Although they were not a seafaring people, the Romans built a fleet and defeated the Carthaginians in several battles. Time and again, however, the Roman fleets were wrecked by the elements. In 241 the Romans finally routed the Carthaginians, off the Aegates (now Egadi) Islands near the western tip of Sicily. Carthage was forced to surrender Sicily and agreed to pay a huge indemnity. Rome became a world power, but the price was high: about 20 percent of its citizens were killed in the war. Nevertheless, the Romans continued to expand; they seized Sardinia and Corsica in 238. Carthage protested but was forced to pay an additional indemnity. In 237 the Carthaginian general \THamilcar Barca\t was sent to Spain, where he conquered large areas. The Romans regarded that conquest as a challenge and decided to invade Spain and Africa, but another Carthaginian general, \THannibal\t, forestalled their scheme. The Second Punic War (218-201) had begun. In a daring march from Spain, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees, southern Gaul, and the Alps and in the autumn of 218 moved down into Italy. The Romans were routed at Trebia (218), at Lake Trasimene (217), and at Cannae in southern Italy (216), where the Romans sustained especially heavy losses. The Gauls in northern Italy--only recently conquered by the Romans (225-220)--had already rallied to Hannibal, and now the Samnites and many other peoples of southern Italy also abandoned Rome. The Romans refused to accept defeat, however. They never again risked a pitched battle; instead the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus (see \TFabius\t family) devised a brilliant strategy of delay and harassment that eventually wore down the Carthaginians. The Romans also sent an army to Spain and managed to cut Hannibal off from any reinforcements. The tide of war turned in 210, when the command in Spain was assumed by Publius Cornelius Scipio, later called \TScipio Africanus Major\t. He twice defeated the Carthaginians and terminated their rule in Spain; in 204 he led the Roman invasion of Africa. The Carthaginian government recalled Hannibal, who left behind him a ravaged Italy and the memory of splendid but futile victories. The Carthaginians were finally beaten at Zama in 202, when, at the hands of Scipio, Hannibal suffered his only defeat. The walls of Carthage were impregnable, and Scipio advocated leniency. Carthage surrendered its fleet, paid an enormous indemnity, and became a dependent ally of Rome. The Macedonian and Syrian Wars In addition to Carthage, Rome had to contend with another foreign enemy--Macedonia (see \TMacedonia, Kingdom of\t). During the Second Punic War, \TPhilip V\t of Macedonia had been an ally of Hannibal. Roman diplomats had enlisted the help of the Aetolian League, and, during the First Macedonian War (214-205), Philip was contained in Greece. The Roman Senate was alarmed, however, by the news (or rumors) of an alliance between Philip and the Seleucid king \TAntiochus III\t of Syria. When Philip began to expand his territory eastward, Rhodes and Pergamum urged Rome to intervene. By the end of the Second Punic War, however, the citizen population of Rome had shrunk to about 214,000. Seemingly it was not the moment for a new war. The leaders in the Senate knew better: Rome had to act while it had a veteran army and proven commanders. Confronted with a Roman ultimatum, Philip refused to yield. The Second Macedonian War (200-196) was decided by a single battle (197) at Cynoscephalae in Thessaly, where the Roman legions routed the Macedonian phalanx. A political masterstroke followed. At Corinth the Roman commander Titus Quinctius \TFlamininus\t proclaimed (196) the Greek cities free from Macedonia. In reality Rome assumed the protectorate of the Greek states. When Antiochus III invaded Greece (in the Syrian War, 192-188), the Romans defeated his army at Thermopylae and destroyed it (190) at Magnesia in Anatolia. Syria had to surrender its fleet; it also had to leave the whole of Anatolia as a Roman sphere of influence. The Macedonian king \TPerseus\t, the son of Philip V, also tried his luck against Rome (Third Macedonian War, 171-168). His army was slaughtered (168) at Pydna in Greece. After an uprising Macedonia was annexed (148) as a Roman province; in 146 the Achaean League was crushed and Corinth was destroyed. All the Greek world was under Roman hegemony. The Third Punic War and the Iberian Campaigns Rome's conflict with Carthage was not finished, however. Fearful of that African power's economic recovery, Rome declared war when Carthage became embroiled in hostilities with \TNumidia\t, Rome's ally. In this Third Punic War (149-146), the Romans won a quick victory, and the Carthaginians accepted all Roman demands and surrendered their arms. Then they were told to abandon their city and settle inland as farmers, for Carthage was to be destroyed. The Carthaginians rescinded their surrender and defended themselves heroically for almost 3 years. When Carthage was finally captured, it was razed (146) under the supervision of Scipio Aemilianus (later known as \TScipio Africanus Minor\t). Rome's campaigns in Spain against the warlike Iberians were protracted, unprofitable, and costly in Roman casualties. They were concluded only in 133, when Scipio Aemilianus destroyed Numantia, a center of the Celtiberians. Political and Economic Change Rome's foreign wars brought great new wealth to the senatorial landed aristocracy and to a newly emerging class, the equestrians, or equites, who were largely financiers and publicans, or tax gatherers. The importation of inexpensive raw materials from the colonies undermined Rome's peasant economy, and the influx of thousands of slaves made possible the organization of latifundia, or large landed estates. As a result of economic dislocation, a large portion of the population of Rome became unemployed and dependent on the public dole. Mobs of the unemployed roamed the streets, ready to be swayed by demagogues. Economic changes also brought forth genuine reformers. The best known were two brothers, Tiberius Sempronius and Caius Sempronius Gracchus (see \TGracchus\t family). In 133, Tiberius was elected tribune on a platform of redistribution of the land to the poor. Predictably, the large landholders in the Senate opposed him. When the Senate declared his reelection illegal his followers rioted, and Tiberius was killed in the violence that erupted. Caius then took over his elder brother's reforms. He became tribune in 123 and extended reform to the tax system and the judiciary. By then, a conservative reaction had set in; Caius was killed by a mob in 121. Anarchy and Civil War The deaths of the Gracchi opened a century of anarchy and civil wars. Their attempts at reform also marked the beginning of two political groupings in the Senate: the Optimates, the conservative "good men," and the Populares, who pressed for reforms, represented trends, or tendencies, rather than political parties. War (112-105) with King \TJugurtha\t of Numidia and an invasion of Italy by the Cimbri and Teutons, two Germanic tribes, demonstrated the inadequacy of Rome's conscript army. Gaius \TMarius\t, an equestrian, distinguished himself as a general. He introduced a volunteer, semiprofessional army and threw its ranks open to the proletarians or common people. The German invaders were wiped out (102-101), but the proletarian soldiers clamored for land. The ruling oligarchy refused to recognize their demands. As a result repeated coalitions were formed between destitute veterans and ambitious generals. In 91, Rome's allies in Italy rose in a great revolt called the Social War. Under this pressure the Romans granted the franchise to all Italians and mercilessly crushed those who did not submit. Civil war followed (88-82). Marius, the great popular hero, died in 86. The opposing forces were led by Lucius Cornelius \TSulla\t, who had the support of the aristocrats. Sulla, with his private proletarian army, marched on Rome and dispersed the legal government. He routed his populist enemies and ruled as dictator (82-81). Sulla ordered thousands of his enemies assassinated and their property confiscated. His goal was to restore the rule of the oligarchs, but he failed to remedy socioeconomic conditions that had undermined their rule, and they proved unfit to govern. Pompey and Caesar The next two great rivals for power in Rome were \TPompey the Great\t and Julius \Tcaesar\t. Both had made their reputations in the army, and both were highly ambitious. In 60 BC, Pompey and Caesar joined Marcus Licinius \TCrassus\t, the richest man in Rome, forming an unofficial compact, sometimes called the First Triumvirate (see \Ttriumvirate\t); they were able to rule despite the opposition of the Senate. Caesar spent much of the next years in the north, successfully fighting the \TGallic Wars\t. In his absence Pompey consolidated his power, primarily by concluding an alliance with the Senate. Crassus died in 53, thereby dissolving the triumvirate. In 52 the Senate made Pompey sole consul and 2 years later ordered Caesar to disband his army (his campaign against the Gauls was now successfully completed). Instead, Caesar crossed the Rubicon into Italy proper early in 49 and marched against Rome, precipitating yet another civil war. In a series of battles he defeated Pompey, who fled to the east. Caesar secured Spain, then pursued Pompey to Greece, defeating him at Pharsalus (48). Pompey escaped --with remnants of his army--to Egypt, where he was murdered. Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt and was soon drawn into the civil war there. He made \TCleopatra\t his mistress and established her as queen of Egypt. Caesar conducted a series of campaigns, winning victories at Zela (modern Zile) in Anatolia (47), at Thapsus in North Africa (46), and at Munda in Spain (45). Back in Rome, he was now firmly in control of the government. He set about reforming the laws and reorganizing the administration of the colonies. Under Caesar, Rome controlled all of Italy, Gaul, Spain, Numidia, Macedonia, Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and virtually all of the Mediterranean islands. Greek art and philosophy had permeated Roman culture, and Rome perceived itself as the civilizer of the barbarians. Caesar, made dictator for life in 44, seemed to be moving toward a monarchical system. On March 15 his autocratic rule was cut short; republican conspirators, led by Marcus Junius \TBrutus\t and Gaius \TCassius Longinus\t, stabbed Caesar to death in the Senate. The Fall of the Republic Caesar's opponents had underestimated the allegiance of Caesar's partisans; they were now galvanized into action by Mark \TAntony\t and by Octavian (later \TAugustus\t), Caesar's grandnephew and heir. Antony, Octavian, and Marcus Aemilius \TLepidus\t formed a triumvirate--sometimes called the Second Triumvirate--and forced the Senate to accept their rule. They instituted a reign of terror, and at the Battle of \TPhilippi\t (42) they defeated the forces of Brutus and Cassius, both of whom committed suicide. By 31, Octavian had defeated Antony and had successfully established himself as princeps, or first citizen. The Senate conferred numerous honors upon him, among them the military command (imperium), hence the modern term emperor. The republic was dead. THE EMPIRE Octavian established a system of government called the principate that endured for two centuries. The principate, "rule by the first citizen," was a monarchy disguised as a republic. The princeps (the emperor) ostensibly ruled by commission from the Senate and the people. There was no automatic system of succession. Normally an emperor succeeded to the throne by virtue of connection--by blood, adoption, or affinity--with a predecessor, or one could seize power by force and inaugurate a new dynasty. The Age of Augustus Octavian, assuming (27 BC) the title and name Imperator Caesar Augustus, carried forth many of the reforms of Julius Caesar. He established his government in 27 BC, rebuilt the city of Rome, and became a great patron of the arts. During his reign the Roman Empire was at its height; it had no rivals--thus began the 200 years of peace known as the Pax Romana. The system of \TRoman roads\t and a sophisticated postal system helped unify the empire. Commerce and trade boomed among the far-flung possessions. Augustus reformed the Senate, made the system of taxation more equitable, and revived the census. He died in AD 14 and was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty \TTiberius\t, the son of \TLivia Drusilla\t, second wife of Augustus, continued the policies of Augustus. Highly frugal in his expenditures, he left the empire in healthy financial condition. The later years of his reign, however, were marked by court intrigue, mostly concerning the succession. Tiberius was succeeded (AD 37) by his great-nephew \TCaligula\t. The latter's reign was noted for cruelty, torture, and licentiousness. Almost certainly insane during much of his reign, he was assassinated in AD 41 by a cabal of the \TPraetorian guard\t, an elite body of the emperor's personal bodyguards that constituted an increasingly powerful institution. The officers of the guard named Caligula's uncle, \TClaudius I\t, as emperor. Claudius was generally an efficient administrator, although historians have blamed him for being too much under the control of his civil servants and his wives, \TMessalina\t and \TAgrippina II\t. Claudius passed over his own son, Britannicus (41-55), for the succession in favor of Agrippina's son, Nero. Agrippina is believed to have poisoned Claudius once she was assured that Nero would succeed him. \TNero\t, the last emperor in the Julio-Claudian dynasty, assumed the throne in 54. He governed well in his early years when he was under the influence of Lucius Annaeus \TSeneca\t and Sextus Afranius Burrus (d. 62), chief of the Praetorian guard. Gradually, however, the influence of his mother and of his second wife, Poppaea Sabina (d. 65), triumphed, and Nero's reign turned bloodthirsty. He poisoned Britannicus, his mother, and Burrus, and legend says that he kicked Poppaea to death. Nero was accused of burning Rome in 64; he in turn blamed a new sect, the Christians, for the fire and began the first Roman persecution of them; Saint Peter and Saint Paul were among its victims. Nero committed suicide in 68 when he saw that a revolution against him was succeeding. He was followed by \TGalba\t and, in 69 (the year of the four emperors), by Otho (32-69), Vitellius (15-69), and Vespasian. The Flavian Dynasty \TVespasian\t (r. 69-79), founder of the Flavian dynasty, declared emperor by his soldiers in the East, brought order and efficiency to the administration of Rome's affairs. He built the \TColosseum\t and other important public works. He was succeeded by two sons, \TTitus\t (r. 79-81), a popular and generous ruler, and \TDomitian\t (r. 81-96), who began his reign by following his brother's policies, but whose rule (despite his generally efficient administration) became progressively more despotic. His wife had him murdered. The Antonines The next six emperors are generally classified as the Antonines, although they do not belong to a single family or dynasty. They ruled for nearly a century; the period is sometimes called the Golden Age of the Roman Empire. The first Antonine, Nerva (c.30-98; r. 96-98), was elected by the Senate in an effort to assert its power over the military. An elderly, well-respected statesman, he was opposed by the Praetorian guard. He adopted as his successor the great soldier \TTrajan\t (a Spaniard, the first non-Italian to serve as emperor). Trajan (r. 98-117), one of Rome's greatest emperors, expanded the empire into modern Romania and into Armenia and Mesopotamia and built impressive aqueducts, roads, theaters, and basilicas. His successor, \THadrian\t (r. 117-38), was another soldier. He was more cautious in his foreign relations than Trajan, although he put down a Jewish revolt in Jerusalem (AD 132-35) with great brutality. \TAntoninus Pius\t had a long and prosperous reign (138-61) and was succeeded by joint emperors, the philosopher \TMarcus Aurelius\t (r. 161-80) and Lucius Verus (130-69; r. 161-69). After Verus died Marcus ruled alone. Marcus Aurelius was a benevolent and humane emperor--with one notable exception: he brutally persecuted the Christians. His reign also saw an increasing number of interior rebellions and attacks on the empire's borders. The reign (180-92) of his son \TCommodus\t is generally regarded as the beginning of Rome's long decline. Commodus was thoroughly unfit to rule, and his reign was marked by despotism, licentiousness, and brutality. He was strangled in 192; a long period of short, violent reigns, marked by constant court intrigues, followed. The Crisis of the 3d Century In the 3d century the Roman world plunged into a prolonged and nearly fatal crisis. The reasons were manifold. Sharp divisions between the opulent notables in the cities and the poor and hardly civilized peasants created tensions. The wars that began under Marcus Aurelius continued, and increased taxation destroyed the prosperity of the empire. To meet rising military costs and to pay the bureaucracy, the emperors, including \TCaracalla\t (r. 211-17), debased the coinage; the resulting inflation proved pernicious. The defenses of the empire on the Rhine and Danube collapsed under the attack of various Germanic and other tribes, and the eastern provinces were invaded by the Persians. Finally, the discipline of the army--in which half-Romanized provincials and totally non-Romanized barbarians were now serving--broke down. In the 50 years from 235 to 284 more than 2 dozen emperors ruled, all but one of whom suffered a violent death. The Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine Out of the turmoil of the 3d century a new totalitarian Rome emerged. The emperor \TDiocletian\t (r. 284-305) adopted the title dominus (master) and transformed the principate into the dominate and citizens into subjects. He adopted an elaborate court ceremonial with many oriental elements. The requisitions and forced labor to which the emperors of the 3d century had resorted in order to save the state were transformed into a lasting system. Peasants were gradually deprived of their personal freedom and tied to the soil. The artisan corporations, and even the higher civil servants, were organized as hereditary castes, and a crushing burden of taxation was imposed on them. Two social groups were preeminent: the rich landowners, who in their fortified villas foreshadowed the medieval feudal lords, and the imperial bureaucracy. \TConstantine I\t (r. 306-37) may be regarded as the second founder of the empire. He successfully fought off his numerous opponents and, once firmly in power, reorganized the entire system of local government (into prefectures, dioceses, and provinces). He legalized Christianity (and was himself converted), thereby enlisting the church in service of the state. He moved the capital to \TByzantium\t, which he had rebuilt and renamed Constantinople (330). Constantine's reforms were not enough, however, to halt the slide of the empire into impotence. Division of the Empire From 395 the empire was permanently divided into the Latin Western and the Greek Eastern or \TByzantine Empire\t, with its capital at Constantinople. The Eastern Empire lived on until 1453, when the Turks conquered Constantinople. The Western Empire was overrun and gradually dismembered by various Germanic tribes. In 410 the Visigoths (see \TGoths\t) and in 455 the \TVandals\t plundered the city of Rome. Finally in 476 the German \TOdoacer\t deposed the last emperor of the west, the child Romulus Augustulus. And so the history of ancient Rome ended ingloriously. The idea of Rome and of the Roman Empire, however, survived its fall, and from the symbiosis of Roman and Germanic elements arose the new states and societies of medieval Europe. J. LINDERSKI Bibliography: Bloch, Raymond, The Origins of Rome (1960); Carcopino, Jerome, Daily Life in Ancient Rome, trans. by E. O. Lorimer (1940); Cary, Max, and Scullard, H. H., A History of Rome; Down to the Reign of Constantine, 3d ed. (1956); Cunliffe, Barry, Rome and the Barbarians (1975); Grant, Michael, The Climax of Rome (1968), The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: A Reappraisal (1976), and History of Rome (1978); Hadas, Moses, ed. and trans., History of Rome, from Its Origins to 529 A.D., as Told by the Roman Historians (1956); Haywood, Richard M., The Myth of Rome's Fall (1958); Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire, 3 vols. (1968), and The Roman Economy (1974); Lewis, Naphtali, and Reinhold, Meyer, Roman Civilization, 2 vols. (1966); Mattingly, Harold, Roman Imperial Civilization (1957; repr. 1971); Scullard, Howard H., From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68, 3d ed. (1970); Sinnigen, William G., and Boak, Arthur E. R., A History of Rome to A.D. 565, 6th ed. (1977). See also: \TEurope, history of\t; \TItaly, history of\t; \TLatin literature\t; \TRoman art and architecture\t; \TRoman law\t.