Norway (Norwegian: Norge) is located on the Scandinavian peninsula in northern Europe. Its long, craggy coast (3,420 km/2,125 mi) forms the western margin of the peninsula and fronts the Atlantic Ocean (sometimes known in that area as the Norwegian Sea) for most of the country's length. To the southwest the North Sea separates Norway from the British Isles, and directly to the south the Skagerrak separates it from Denmark. On the landward side Norway shares an extensive border with Sweden and for a short distance in the north with Finland and the \TUSSR\t. Lying directly northward is the Barents Sea, an arm of the Arctic Ocean. The country's length from north to south is about 1,770 km (1,100 mi), but for much of the distance it is extremely narrow. Only in the south does its breadth from west to east exceed 160 km (100 mi). Almost one-third of the country lies within the Arctic Circle. The northernmost city in Europe, \THammerfest\t, is situated in this region, where the sun shines almost continuously for 24 hours at the height of the summer. Because of this phenomenon, Norway is known as the Land of the Midnight Sun. Most of the terrain is marked by rugged mountains interrupted by narrow valleys that cut deeply into the land, and only 3% is arable. For this reason Norway was forced to turn to the sea for its livelihood. Norway has one of the highest standards of living in the world. The discovery of petroleum and natural gas in the Norwegian section of the North Sea in the late 1960s increased prosperity further. In 1975, Norway began to export petroleum and natural gas, which in 1989 accounted for nearly 40% of income from exports. The Norwegian state was formed in the 9th century, but in 1397 it was united with Denmark and, for a brief period, with Sweden, in the Kalmar Union. The union with Denmark lasted until 1814, when Norway was ceded to Sweden. During the 19th century a strong nationalist movement within Norway led to the dissolution of the union with Sweden, and in 1905, Norway became an independent nation, with a democratic, monarchical form of government. LAND AND RESOURCES Only one-fifth of the country lies below 150 m (500 ft), and the highest peak, Glittertinden, in the Jotunheim range (see \TJotunheimen\t), rises to 2,472 m (8,110 ft). The Dovrefjell and Langfjell ranges are found in southern Norway. The only region that can be described as coastal lowland lies in the area surrounding Oslo, the capital city, in the extreme southeast. Along much of the coast sheer cliffs drop spectacularly to the sea, forming the \Lfjord\ls, which are among the most distinctive features of the country. The longest and deepest of these is the Sogne Fjord. About 150,000 offshore islands and rocks serve as a barrier that helps protect the coast from Atlantic storms. The Lofoten group is the largest among these islands. Soils Most soils were removed by glaciers during the Pleistocene Epoch, and new soil has not yet had time to form over the land. Peat is now found in surface hollows in the mountains. Glacial deposits that were spread over the valley floors have resulted in poor, stony soils. In addition, the high rainfall leads to the leaching of soil nutrients, and most soils are podzolic. Climate The climate is temperate, and the severity of winter along the coast is moderated by southerly air currents brought in above the waters of the North Atlantic Drift, which is warmed by the Gulf Stream. The coastal region has a January average temperature that varies from about -1 deg C (30 deg F) in the north to more than 7 deg C (45 deg F) in the south. Winter temperatures drop sharply inland and readings below -18 deg C (0 deg F) are common. Summers are cool throughout the country, with averages at sea level no higher than 16 deg C (60 deg F) in July. Temperatures rise a few degrees higher in the lowlands near the Swedish border. Rainfall is high everywhere and drops below 1,017 mm (40 in) only in the southeast. Drainage The drainage system, which developed after the Ice Age, consists of many short rivers that drop steeply from the high regions and drain directly to the sea. Only in the southeast has a drainage network evolved; here the Glama, Lagen, and Rauma rivers drain much of the lowland area and join before entering the North Sea near Oslo. Animal Life and Vegetation The native fauna is rich and varied and includes reindeer, elk, wolf, and bear, as well as many varieties of smaller animals. The larger species, however, are today found only in remote areas of the north. Norway is a breeding ground for many varieties of birds that migrate to warmer climates during the winter. The rivers contain abundant salmon and trout, which are caught commercially. Spruce and pine predominate in Norway's forests, and hardy deciduous trees, such as birch and ash, are common at low elevations. In the mountains the growth is mainly heather, low bushes that yield abundant edible berries, and gnarled shrubbery. Resources Timber is the main natural resource. In addition, Norway has tremendous resources in its offshore petroleum and natural-gas fields as well as in the hydroelectricity-generating capacity of its numerous rapid rivers and waterfalls. Iron and copper and small reserves of the alloy metals are found. PEOPLE Norway's population is primarily Nordic. The \TLapps\t (Samme), who constitute the indigenous population and are now a minority numbering about 20,000, are thought to be of Mongolian origin. Still seminomadic, they live mainly by herding reindeer. \TLapland\t, their home, extends across northern Scandinavia, but the majority of Lapps are concentrated in Norway, and Kautokeino, Norway, is the center of Lapland. Language Norwegian is a Germanic language closely related to both Danish and Swedish. Two mutually intelligible forms of the language exist in present-day Norway. Bokmal (formerly Riksmal) evolved from Danish, which was introduced into Norway when the country was under Danish domination and was the only written language until about 1850. In an attempt to purge the language of these foreign influences and restore the connections with Old Norse, the philologist Ivan Andreas Aasen (1813-96) drew from the old rural dialects and created Landsmal (Nynorsk). A struggle for supremacy between Landsmal and Bokmal ensued, and although both languages are used, Bokmal is more widespread. Bokmal has been modified in the direction of popular dialect speech and is generally used in the press and in education. Currently an attempt is being made to fuse the two languages into one, called Samnorsk. Demography The population of Norway is increasing slowly. Both the birth and infant mortality rates are low, and life expectancy is among the highest in the world. Norway, while becoming increasingly urbanized, is still one of the least urbanized countries in Europe. \TOslo\t, the largest city, is followed by \TBergen\t, \TTrondheim\t, \TStavanger\t, Baerum, \TKristiansand\t, and Drammen. The majority of the population live in villages and on small, isolated farmsteads, with about two-thirds of the population concentrated in the valleys of the southeast and close to the coast in southern Norway. Population is extremely sparse in northern Norway and inland. The overall density is the lowest in Europe, excluding Iceland. Large settlements have been founded for workers at new industrial plants, which are mainly in rural regions, but a continuing migration to the cities occurs as marginal farmland is abandoned. Education and Health Norway has a system of free education, compulsory to the age of 16. Beyond this age students have a choice between vocational training and continued high school education, which leads to university admission. The literacy rate is 100%. Norway has four universities together with a number of professional and other institutions of higher education, all of which are free. About 41,000 students, or 1% of the population, are enrolled in universities and professional schools. The state operates a national health system, and much health care is free. The doctor-patient ratio is one doctor for 445 people, and most doctors are employed in hospitals. A system of social security helps to maintain an adequate standard of living for all, regardless of income, and provides a basic retirement pension, irrespective of former income. Most families receive a special monthly allotment for each child. Literature and the Arts The oldest Norwegian literature, the legends of the \TVikings\t written in Old Norse, dates from the early Middle Ages and survives mainly in Icelandic writings (see \TIcelandic literature\t). The Norwegians who fled (c.850-875) from Norway during the reign of Harold I and colonized Iceland brought with them a large body of oral mythological poetry; these legends were eventually recorded and constitute the \Lsaga\ls and \LEdda\ls of Old Norse literature. When a literary tradition again emerged it was in Danish. Among the figures in this tradition was Baron Ludvig \THolberg\t, who wrote in the 18th century. A distinctly Norwegian literary tradition began to take shape in the 19th century, receiving impetus from newly achieved independence (1814) from Denmark, and reached its peak in Henrik \TWergeland\t, Henrik \TIbsen\t, and Bjornstjerne \TBjornson\t (Nobel Prize, 1903). The works of Knut \THamsun\t (Nobel Prize, 1920) and Sigrid \TUndset\t (Nobel Prize, 1928) represent new and diverse strains in Norwegian literature. In the 20th century, literature began to reflect interest in Norwegian history and culture (see \TNorwegian literature\t). Norway has a strongly developed tradition of folk music; a school of composers, however, did not develop until the 19th century; its most distinguished members were Edvard \TGrieg\t, Christian SINDING, and Johan SVENDSEN, all of whom made great use of traditional music. The painting of Edvard \TMunch\t has achieved worldwide recognition. Gustav \TVigeland\t produced a vast body of sculpture, which has been collected in Frogner Park in Oslo. Norway has a publicly owned broadcasting service. In 1984, 64 daily newspapers were published, most of them serving local areas. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Until late in the 19th century Norway remained a producer of primary goods: fish, timber, and farm products. Industrial development began about 1900, when the immense reserves of water power were put to use. Today Norway derives about 14% of its gross national product from manufacturing and less than 4% from agriculture. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing Although the country is poor in land suitable for cultivation, which is also restricted by the cool, wet climate, agriculture is practiced in the fertile valleys on small farms averaging 17 ha (42 acres). Only about 3% of the land is arable and almost 75% is unproductive; mountain pastures (2%) permit livestock raising, particularly cattle raising, which is more important economically than cultivation of crops. Dairying is also important. Forests account for 21% of the land, and many farmers engage in forestry as well to supplement income. The wood-processing industry has declined in recent years, however. Norway has long been known for its fisheries. Fishing, including fish farming, forms the basis of the fish-processing industry, and fish and fish products are important exports. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing occupy approximately 7% of the work force, and many Norwegians are engaged in more than one of these occupations. Industry and Power Production of petroleum and gas has become the foremost industry with the discovery of offshore fields. Food, beverage, and tobacco processing rank second. The manufacture of transportation equipment, primarily ships and boats (the major export), ranks third, followed by production of metal and metal products. Manufacturing and mining employ less than 20% of the labor force. Norway has coal only on its Arctic islands of \TSvalbard\t. Despite the petroleum being exploited from the North Sea, the chief energy source is still hydroelectric power. In 1989, 121.7 billion kW h were produced. Much of the manufacturing is carried on in rural areas. Transportation Norway's elongated shape and rugged terrain have made it difficult to maintain a transportation network, which is well developed only in the southeast. About 60% of main roads are surfaced. Coastal shipping is commonly used; the northern third of the country has no railroad, and traveling there is done by bus or automobile. The railroads are state owned. Aircraft are used to maintain contact with remote areas, and Norway is a part owner of Scandinavian Airlines (SAS). Trade Petroleum and natural gas provide more than half of all export earnings. Other important exports are metals and metal products, machinery and transportation equipment, and fish and fish products. Imports include machinery and transportation equipment, raw materials for industry, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs. Although Norway's high production costs reduce its competitiveness in world markets, it generally has a favorable balance of trade due to petroleum revenues. Tourism also provides foreign exchange. GOVERNMENT Norway is a hereditary constitutional monarchy, with a constitution that was drafted in 1814. It gives broad powers to the king, but the council of ministers, headed by the prime minister, generally exercises this power as king in council. The 155 members of the Storting, or parliament, are elected for a fixed term of 4 years by all Norwegians 20 years of age or older. Election is by a form of proportional representation. The major political parties are the Labor party, the largest single party, and the Conservative party. The Labor party, which was responsible for creating the democratic-socialist welfare state, headed the government for 37 years during the period 1935-81. A debate about high taxes and rising inflation caused the Labor party to lose ground to center-right groups. The Conservatives under Kare Willoch were in office from 1981 to 1986, when they were ousted by Labor, led by Gro Harlem \TBrundtland\t, Norway's first woman premier. Voted out of office in 1989, Brundtland was replaced by the Conservative Jan Syse, but she returned to head a new government in November 1990. Local administration is on the basis of 19 counties or provinces (fylker) and the cities of Bergen and Oslo. Norway is closely associated with the other Scandinavian countries in an informal alliance. In 1972 a referendum rejected membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), but Norway remained part of the \TEuropean Free Trade Association\t (EFTA). HISTORY Norway was not settled until the climate ameliorated at the end of the Ice Age (c.7000 BC), allowing people to migrate both from Central Europe and from Asia. During the early years of the Christian era (beginning in the 8th century) a number of small tribal kingdoms emerged, representing the beginnings of separate nation-states within Scandinavia. Separated from one another by uninhabitable mountains, they resisted attempts in the course of the 9th century to merge them into a larger and more powerful unit. The bloody conflicts between the tribal groups, as well as a craving for adventure, prompted people to leave their lands in what is known as the Viking movement (9th to 11th centuries). Warriors from the Viks, or fjords, raided throughout western Europe and into the Mediterranean. Unification During the 10th century the country moved toward political unity. King \THarold I\t conquered much of Norway, which his descendants ruled for 2 centuries. Among these kings were \TOlaf I\t, who sought to impose Christianity on the pagan country, and \TOlaf II\t (Saint Olaf), who succeeded in Christianizing Norway. This period was extremely troubled and torn by dynastic feuds, and the country was often at war with the Swedes, Danes, and peoples in northern Britain. During this time King \TSverre\t consolidated the power of the monarchy and fashioned a new nobility. Prolonged peace did not come to Norway until the 13th century, under \THaakon IV\t. Iceland and Greenland were ruled by Norway at this time, but suzerainty over the northern isles of Britain was relinquished. King \TMagnus VI\t introduced a new code of legal practice, replacing the ancient system of wergild that had derived from pagan times. At the same time the country began to develop economically. Bergen and other coastal cities grew into important commercial centers, linked by trade with the \THanseatic League\t (which was eventually to dominate Norwegian trade completely). German influence increased within Norway, and the power of the local aristocracy began to decline. Foreign Domination Marriage ties linked Norway with both Sweden and Denmark, and \TMargaret I\t of Denmark, the wife of Haakon VI, succeeded in gaining control of the country. At the end of the 14th century the Norwegian royal house died out, and the nobles elected Eric of Pomerania, Margaret's grandnephew, as their king. Eric ruled nominally for Margaret, who united Norway, Sweden, and Denmark by the Union of Kalmar. This union did not last long; Sweden broke away in 1450, but Norway became linked even more closely to Denmark, of which it became little more than a province. Norway was ruled by Danish officials, Danish became the official language, and Norwegians were forced to fight in Denmark's numerous wars. Norway's power declined drastically, but economic development was spurred under the Danes. During the 18th century Danish control began to be relaxed; in 1814, Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden by the Treaty of Kiel at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. The Norwegians refused to recognize the change and demanded independence. The Swedish army invaded Norway, but a compromise was reached; under the Act of Union of 1814, Norway was allowed to retain the constitution that had been recently drawn up at Eidsvold, while remaining in personal union with Sweden under the Swedish king. Independence During the 19th century relations between Norway and Sweden were strained. Growing nationalism in Norway and increasing wealth made the country resentful of its dependent status. In 1905 the union with Sweden was peacefully dissolved, and a Danish prince, Carl, taking the name \THaakon VII\t, was elected king of Norway. Norway remained neutral during World War I but in April 1940 was invaded without warning by the Germans. The Norwegians resisted German occupation forces and severe reprisals were inflicted by the Nazis in an attempt to halt the underground movement. During most of this period Norway was ruled by a puppet regime under the Norwegian Vidkun \TQuisling\t, who had been nominated by Hitler. The Norwegian merchant fleet played a vital role in aiding the Allies. Although it lost half of its fleet, the country recovered quickly after the war. King Haakon was followed on the throne by \TOlaf V\t (r. 1957-91); on Olaf's death (January 1991), his son \THarold V\t succeeded him. Norman J. G. Pounds Bibliography: \TGeneral\t: Aftenposten, A., ed., Facts about Norway, 20th ed. (1986); Gathorne-Hardy, Geoffrey, Norway (1925; repr. 1975); Helvig, Magne, and Johannessen, Viggo, Norway: Land, People, Industries, 2d ed. (1968); Koht, Halvdan, and Skard, Sigmund, Voice of Norway (1944; repr. 1967); Popperwell, Ronald G., Norway (1972); Sather, Leland B., Norway (1986). \Teconomics\t, \LPolitic\ls, AND \Tgovernment\t: Eckstein, Harry, Division and Cohesion in Democracy: A Study of Norway (1966); Galenson, Walter, A Welfare State Strikes Oil: The Norwegian Experience (1986); Hodne, Fritz, The Norwegian Economy, 1920-1980 (1984); Knudsen, Ole, Norway at Work: A Survey of the Principal Branches of the Economy (1972); Martinussen, Willy, The Distant Democracy: Social Inequality, Political Resources and Political Influence in Norway (1977); Vartia, Pentii, et al., eds., Growth Politics in A Nordic Perspective (1987). \Thistory\t: Adenaes, J., et al., Norway and the Second World War (1983); Andersen, P. S., Vikings of the West: The Expansion of Norway in the Early Middle Ages (1971); Baden-Powell, Dorothy, Pimpernel Gold: How Norway Foiled the Nazis (1978); Derry, T. K., A History of Modern Norway, 1814-1972 (1973); Flora, Peter, ed., Growth to the Limits: The Western European Welfare States, vol. 1 (1988); Gjerset, Knut, History of the Norwegian People (1932; repr. 1980); Holst, J. J., ed., Norwegian Foreign Policy in the 1980s (1988); Midgaard, John, Norway: A Brief History, 7th ed. (1979). \Tsocial\t \TLife\t AND \Lcondition\ls: Ahrne, Goran, et al., eds., Class and Social Organization in Finland, Sweden, and Norway (1988); Connery, Donald S., The Scandinavians (1966); Olsen, J. P., ed., Organized Democracy (1983). Ramsey, Natalie R., Norwegian Society (1974); Semmingsen, Ingrid, Norway to America, trans. by Einar Haugen (1978).