Mexico is the third largest country in Latin America (after Brazil and Argentina) and extends between latitudes 14 deg 30 min and 32 deg 43 min north in southern North America. It is bordered by the United States on the north, Guatemala and Belize on the southeast, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west and south. Ancient empires--including those of the \TMaya\t, \TOlmec\t, \TZapotec\t, \TMixtec\t, \TToltec\t, and \TAztec\t--flourished there for centuries before the Spanish conquest of 1519-21. Under the Spanish, Mexico became \TNew Spain\t and was ruled as a colony for more than 300 years. The struggle for independence began in 1810 and continued until 1821, when Gen. Agustin de \TIturbide\t seized control and made himself Mexico's first emperor. On Oct. 4, 1824, Mexico became a republic and assumed its present name, which is derived from the Mexica, one of seven Nahuatl tribes who inhabit the central regions of the country. Political strife and war marked the next 70 years and brought the loss in 1836 of what is now Texas, followed in 1848 by the cession of lands included in the present U.S. states of Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Texas, and California. The dictator Porfirio \TDiaz\t brought a long period of stability and development by foreign interests. The 1910 Revolution signaled the beginning of a period of dramatic social change that led in 1938 to the nationalization of the country's basic industries. Rapid industrial growth after 1940 improved living standards for much of the population, but 40% continued to eke out an existence near the poverty level. Vast new petroleum resources discovered in the 1970s and 1980s raised hopes of expanded economic growth. LAND AND RESOURCES Mexico rises to a high point of 5,747 m (18,855 ft) in the volcano Orizaba, located near Puebla in a chain of mountains called the Transverse Volcanic Sierra (or Volcanic Cordillera). The Transverse Volcanic Sierra extends east-west across Mexico at about 19 deg north latitude and includes the volcanoes \TPopocatepetl\t (5,452 m/17,888 ft), \TIxtacihuatl\t (5,386 m/17,671 ft), Nevado de Toluca (4,558 m/14,954 ft), Nevado de Colima (4,330 m/14,206 ft), and \TParicutin\t (2,774 m/9,101 ft). Areas north of the Transverse Volcanic Sierra exhibit north-south trend lines that are structural continuations of U.S. landforms; areas south of the volcanic zone are dominated by east-west trend lines structurally related to landforms in Central America and the West Indies. Landforms In the north the principal landform, covering almost 50% of the country's area, is the Mexican Plateau, a high tableland exceeding 2,130 m (7,000 ft) in elevation. It is divided by the Sierra Zacatecas range into the dry, sparsely settled Northern Mesa and the lake-dotted, densely populated Central Mesa. The \TSierra Madre\t ranges, southern extensions of the Rocky Mountains, border the Mexican Plateau--the Oriental rising to more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft) to the east, and the Occidental, with elevations exceeding 3,300 m (10,000 ft), to the west. Coastal plains edge the mountains along the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific coasts. Separated from the mainland by the Gulf of California (see \TCalifornia, Gulf of\t) is the \TBaja California\t peninsula. South of the Transverse Volcanic Sierra and extending as far as the down-faulted lowlands of the Isthmus of \TTehuantepec\t, Mexico's narrowest point, are three prominent, east-west trending landforms. They include the Mixteco Shield (Escudo Mixteco) at the southern end of the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Zempoaltepetl region farther east; the rugged and ancient rocks of the Southern Sierra Madre, which descend steeply to the Pacific coast between Cape Corrientes and the Gulf of Tehuantepec; and the isolated Balsas River Basin, located between the volcanic zone and the Southern Sierra Madre. In the east the \TYucatan Peninsula\t projects northward into the Gulf of Mexico as a limestone platform. In the southeast, between the Yucatan Peninsula, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and neighboring Guatemala, the principal landforms are the Tabasco Plain, along the Gulf of Mexico; the Chiapas Highlands, which reach elevations of more than 2,850 m (9,380 ft); the down-faulted Chiapas Valley, the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, a continuation of the Southern Sierra Madre; and a narrow coastal plain along the Pacific Ocean. Also prominent in the southeast is the rumbling Tacana volcano, which rises to 4,093 m (13,428 ft) along Mexico's border with Guatemala. Soils Mexico's most fertile soils are alluvial in origin and develop mainly along river valleys and on the Gulf and Pacific coastal plains. Fertile soils inland include the lacustrine soils, formed on the dry beds of ancient lakes and common in the Bajio de Guanajuato and other basin areas of the southern Mexican Plateau and Transverse Volcanic Sierra. Soils of volcanic origin are also generally productive. Arid soils, deficient in humus and often highly alkaline, are found in dry areas of the northern Mexican Plateau, in Baja California, and in the northern Yucatan Peninsula. Rendzina soils, found in warm and humid limestone-based areas, dominate the northern Gulf-coast plain and parts of the Balsas Basin and the southern Yucatan Peninsula. Laterites are common in nonalluvial areas along the coastal plains and on the humid northern slopes of the Chiapas Highlands. Climate Mexico's climate is hot and humid along the coastal areas and becomes increasingly arid toward the north. Temperatures decrease with increasing altitude. During the warmer half of the year, all of Mexico lies in the belt of Northeast Trade Winds, which blow from the Bermuda or Azores Subtropical High and bring heat and humidity from the Gulf of Mexico accompanied by \Torographic precipitation\t when forced to rise over mountainous areas. In the cooler half of the year, when the world's wind belts shift southward, the Bermuda Subtropical High dominates the climate of northern Mexico and brings clear skies with virtually no precipitation, while southern parts of Mexico remain under the influence of the Northeast Trades. The wettest areas, where rainfall varies between 1,500 and 3,500 mm (59-140 in) each year, are located south of 22 deg north latitude and include the mountainous, windward slopes of southern and central Mexico. Other areas in the south generally receive more than 610 mm (24 in) of rain annually. Drier conditions prevail in the north. The driest areas on the Mexican Plateau receive less than 305 mm (12 in) of precipitation a year; very dry areas along the northwest Pacific coast receive as little as 50 mm (2 in) a year. Temperatures decrease with increasing altitude, giving Mexico a number of altitudinal temperature zones. The hottest lands (tierra caliente) are along the coastal plains, in the Balsas Basin and in the Chiapas Valley. Temperatures there exceed 22 deg C (72 deg F). Semi-hot lands, with temperatures between 18 deg C (64 deg F) and 22 deg C (72 deg F), are found in the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental and Occidental, while temperate conditions (tierra templada), with average temperatures between 12 deg C (54 deg F) and 18 deg C (64 deg F), are common over most of the Mexican Plateau. Cold temperatures (tierra fria), ranging between 5 deg C (41 deg F) and 12 deg C (54 deg F), dominate areas above 1,830 m (6,000 ft) in altitude, and very cold conditions (tierra helada) above 3,650 m (12,000 ft). Tropical cyclones bring heavy rains during the summer and early fall and are most common in September. In winter, occasional nortes (northers), or outbursts of continental polar air from North America, bring unusually cold winter temperatures southward into Mexico. Drainage The six principal rivers draining to the Gulf of Mexico include the Rio Bravo del Norte (\TRio Grande\t), which follows part of the United States-Mexico border; the 700-km-long (438-mi) Grijalva in the southeast; the 966-km (600-mi) Usumacinta, which lies along part of the Guatemala-Mexico border; the 314-km (195-mi) Papaloapan; the 300-km (188-mi) Coatzacoalcos; and the 510-km (319-mi) Panuco. The major rivers draining to the Pacific are the Colorado, which flows into the head of the Gulf of California; the 724-km (450-mi) Balsas; and the 927-km (579-mi) Lerma-Santiago river system--the longest in all Mexico--whose headwaters are diverted for use by Mexico City. The Mexican Plateau is a basin of interior drainage, and its major rivers evaporate, disappear underground, or flow into lakes. Usable groundwater deposits are estimated to be 30 billion cu m (1 trillion cu ft). About half of all wells are used for irrigation purposes. Vegetation and Animal Life Mexico includes within its borders representatives of both the Nearctic and Neotropical floral and faunal zones. Rain-forest vegetation predominates in southwestern \TCampeche\t, northeastern \TChiapas\t, northern \TTabasco\t, and southeastern \TVeracruz\t states, as well as in southern and eastern regions of the Yucatan Peninsula. Coniferous and oak-tree forests predominate in humid areas of the mild and semi-cold climate regions, including the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Transverse Volcanic Sierra, and the uplands of northern Baja California. Tropical savanna grasslands dominate much of the Yucatan Peninsula and some areas of the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico coastal plains. Thorny desert thickets and dry grasslands can be found in dry areas of the Mexican Plateau, northeastern and northwestern parts of the country, and in Baja California. Mangrove swamps are common in low, muddy areas along the Gulf and Pacific coasts south of the Tropic of Cancer. Widely distributed fauna include deer, coyote, ocelots, sparrowhawks, buzzards, rabbits, skunks, badgers, pumas, bears, and many species of birds. The tropical areas are inhabited by armadillos, tapirs, monkeys, macaws, parrots, crocodiles, iguanas, and snakes. Resources Mexico has abundant petroleum resources along the Gulf coastal plain, especially in the Reforma field of Chiapas and Tabasco states, developed since 1972, and offshore in the Gulf of Campeche, where deposits were discovered in 1978 and 1981. Additional new gas and oil fields were found in 1984. Natural gas, sulfur, and salt are found with the petroleum deposits. Other minerals of commercial importance are coal at Sabinas, northern \TCoahuila\t state, and iron ore, mined near the city of \TDurango\t. Mexico is also the world's leading producer of silver and fluorite and an important producer of gold, copper, lead, cadmium, manganese, antimony, zinc, mercury, and barites. Lands suitable for farming constitute only about 15% of the total area and lands for grazing about 38%. Forests cover 25% of the land. Fish are abundant in waters off both coasts; the government in the mid-1980s worked to increase greatly the level of fishing potential that is exploited. Hydroelectric power sites are numerous along the steep edges of the Mexican Plateau. Water resources are adequate except in the 11% of the nation with no surface water. PEOPLE The inhabitants of Mexico are ethnically diverse. Some are descendants of early Spanish settlers or Indians, but many are of mixed ancestry. Racial data has not been officially recorded since 1921, however, and therefore precise ethnic data is unavailable. The primary language used is now the basis for the identification of ethnic groups. By using this criterion, only about 7% of the population is considered Indian and includes about 4% who are bilingual speakers of Spanish, the official language, and an indigenous Indian language. Speakers of only an indigenous language form 3% of the population. The most widely used languages other than Spanish are Nahuatl, used in east central Mexico; Maya, primarily in the Yucatan; Zapotec and Mixtec, spoken in \TOaxaca\t state; and Otomi, spoken near Mexico City and in parts of \TPuebla\t and Veracruz states. In 1980 over 5 million Mexicans spoke dialects derived from these indigenous language groups. Religion An estimated 97% of the population are Roman Catholics, and 2% are Protestants; there are also about 100,000 Jews. Freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed, and only civil marriages are legal. Demography From only about 15 million persons in 1910, Mexico's population grew to 34 million in 1960, more than 66 million in 1980, and an estimated 87,870,000 in 1990. With the annual rate of natural increase at 2.5%, the population would reach 112.85 million by the year 2000. The crude birthrate remains high despite a vigorous birth-control program that is backed by the Mexican government, and the death rate has shown a rapid decline during the post-World War II era. At the same time, the infant mortality rate has also decreased dramatically. As a result of these established demographic trends, Mexico has a very young population--approximately half of the people are under 15 years of age. The most densely populated areas are between latitudes 19 deg and 21 deg north in parts of the Mexican Plateau and Transverse Volcanic Sierra at altitudes above 1,000 m (3,280 ft). The most sparsely populated areas are the states of Baja California Sur on the Baja California peninsula, and Campeche and \TQuintana Roo\t, on the Yucatan Peninsula. Migration from rural to urban areas accelerated after 1940, and in 1980 about 33% of the population were concentrated in 7 urban centers with more than 500,000 inhabitants. The largest city and the capital of Mexico, \TMexico City\t, is more than five times the size of second-ranking \TGuadalajara\t. Other large cities, in order of population size, are \TMonterrey\t, Mexico City's suburb of Netzahualcoyotl, \TPuebla\t, \TLeon\t, \TCiudad Juarez\t, \TCuliacan\t, \TMexicali\t, \TTijuana\t, \TMerida\t, and \TAcapulco\t. Education and Health A large majority of the population between 6 and 14 years old attend a six-year, free, compulsory elementary-school program; few continue their education beyond this level. Of these, most go on to regional technological institutes where training emphasizes skills needed for national development. Only about 5% attend institutions of higher learning. Many of these are enrolled at either the National Autonomous University of Mexico (see: \TMexico, National Autonomous University of\t) or the National Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1936. Intensive adult education programs were begun in the 1970s to decrease illiteracy. Since 1931, when the first Law of Social Security was passed, health conditions in Mexico have improved dramatically under the aegis of the Mexican Institute of Social Security (IMSS). Life expectancy has steadily increased in the decades since 1930, and the number of medical specialists has risen markedly. The leading causes of death are pneumonia, enteritis and other intestinal disorders, heart disease, cancer, birth-related causes, and accidents. The Arts Noted Mexican poets include Amado \TNervo\t and Manuel Gutierrez Najera. Famous writers are Mariano \TAzuela\t, Carlos \TFuentes\t, Octavio \TPaz\t, Agustin \TYanez\t, and Martin Luis Guzman. Modern Mexican art dates from the Revolution of 1910 and is expressed in the work of such famous artists as Jose Clemente \TOrozco\t, Diego \TRivera\t, David Alfaro \TSiqueiros\t, Rufino \TTamayo\t, and Juan O'GORMAN, whose politically inspired murals and mosaics decorate many of Mexico's modern buildings. Among the nation's outstanding composers are Carlos \TChavez\t and Silvestre Revueltas. Regional folk arts, derived from ancient Indian cultures, also flourish, and the ceramics, weaving, silverwork, sandals, and hats are sold in large numbers to enthusiastic tourists. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Mining and subsistence farming, the predominant economic activities during the Spanish colonial period, remain important today, although silver is now less important than petroleum, natural gas, and other industrial minerals. Commercial agriculture dates from the late 19th and early 20th centuries and has been actively promoted by government-sponsored programs of agrarian reform, irrigation, and road construction. Manufacturing was slow to develop but grew rapidly after 1940 to become today's dominant and fastest-growing sector of the economy. Tourism, which has been officially encouraged, is Mexico's second largest earner of foreign exchange (after the petroleum industry). A recessionary world economy and depressed oil markets contributed to an economic crisis that started in the early 1980s and persisted. Following multiple devaluations of the peso, the nation faced bankruptcy. The government nationalized banks and subsequently imposed a broad austerity program. Manufacturing A declining percentage of the economically active population is engaged in manufacturing. Principal iron and steel centers are located at Monterrey and Monclova, close to the Sabinas coalfield. Most other industries are attracted to the densely populated urban areas in and around Mexico City, Guadalajara, Orizaba, and Puebla. In addition to steel, the main industries include food processing, petroleum refining, and the manufacture of petrochemicals, synthetic fibers, textiles, fertilizers, paper, pharmaceuticals, and the assembly of automobiles. Also important--reflecting Mexico's rapid industrialization--are the construction industry and the related manufacture of cement. Mining Petroleum, the production of which was nationalized in 1938 and is now controlled by the government agency PEMEX (Petroleos Mexicanos), is Mexico's principal mineral resource and leading export. In the 1920s, Mexico was second only to the United States in the production of petroleum. Production then centered on the Golden Lane field near \TTampico\t, famed for its then-spectacular output of 400,000 barrels per day. New finds, including those developed since 1974 in the Reforma and Campeche fields of the south, brought Mexico's total of proven oil and natural gas reserves to more than 71 billion barrels in 1985. Natural gas produced in association with the petroleum is piped to Monterrey. An agreement to sell natural gas to the United States was reached in 1979. Mexico's other minerals include silver, lead, and zinc; these are mostly produced from the old colonial mining centers of \TGuanajuato\t (city), \TLa Paz\t, \TPachuca\t, \TSan Luis Potosi\t (city), \TZacatecas\t (city), and Parral; copper, worked at Cananea in the northwest and near Santa Rosalia on the Baja California Peninsula; and sulfur, first extracted in 1956 near Jaltipan in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Energy In 1987, Mexico produced an estimated 104.8 billion kW h of electricity. About three quarters was generated in thermal plants fueled by petroleum, natural gas, and coal; and one quarter was produced in hydroelectric plants located on the steep southern and eastern edges of the Mexican Plateau. More than 50% of all electricity is produced in this densely populated and industrialized zone, and distribution to other areas is limited. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing About a quarter of the economically active population is employed in agriculture, forestry, or fishing. Most are subsistence farmers producing small amounts of corn and beans, while sometimes raising a goat, some chickens, or a pig. Commercial farming is concentrated in irrigated regions of the arid north, where cotton and wheat are the chief crops; along the Mayo, Yaqui, and Fuerte rivers, where tomatoes and melons are raised; and in southern, frost-free plains and highlands of \TJalisco\t, Veracruz, Tabasco, Chiapas, and Oaxaca states, where coffee, sugarcane, bananas, cacao, and pineapples are major crops. Since the 1910 Revolution many large estates (haciendas) and coffee plantations (fincas) have been broken up and distributed as small holdings (ejidos) to landless farm workers. Cattle raising, an important colonial activity, is concentrated in the semiarid north; sheep are raised in drier parts of the Mexican Plateau, and goats in more rugged sections. The forest industry is as yet small. The principal trees cut are pine, red cedar, holm oak, and oyamel; about 80% of cut wood is used for lumber, and about 20% for pulpwood. Fishing is a similarly underdeveloped but potentially profitable industry. Fish plays a minor role in Mexican diets, and most of the catch is exported. The most valuable catches are shrimp from the Gulf of California, Campeche Bay, and Gulf of Tehauntepec waters; tuna and sardines, fished in the Pacific off Baja California; and groupers, snappers, pompano, and other tropical fish from the Gulf of Mexico. Transportation Despite the mountainous terrain, most parts of Mexico are now well served by a network of modern highways. The road system focuses on Mexico City, the nation's cultural and economic hub, and includes among its major axes the 1,189-km (739-mi) \TPan American Highway\t (to Nuevo Laredo), the 1,979-km (1,230-mi) Central Highway (to Ciudad Juarez), and roads to Piedras Negras, Guadalajara, Nogales, Acapulco, Tampico, Matamoros, and La Paz. The nationally owned rail network is less extensive than the road system, but it is nonetheless vital, carrying millions of passengers and millions of tons of freight annually. Numerous airports offer national and international flights, and additional airports provide domestic service exclusively. Air services now carry nearly as many passengers as the railroads, and transport a significant amount of freight. The major Mexican airline is Compania Mexicana de Aviacion, and there are smaller regional airlines. Ferry systems operate across the Gulf of California between La Paz and Mazatlan, between Santa Rosalia and Cabo San Lucas on the Baja California peninsula, and Guaymas and Puerto Vallarta on the mainland. Among the principal ports are Tampico, Veracruz, and Coatzacoalcos along the Gulf of Mexico, and Mazatlan and Guaymas on the Pacific coast. Trade In recent years Mexico, unlike many developing nations, has had a favorable balance of trade, with exports exceeding imports in value. Petroleum is the most valuable export (even during the world glut of the 1980s); other important export commodities include cotton, coffee, nonferrous metals, and foodstuffs, including shrimp, cattle and meat, fresh fruit, and tomatoes. Mexican imports include machinery, equipment, industrial vehicles, and intermediate goods. Trade with the United States accounts for more than 60% of all imports and exports; other major trading partners are the European Community nations and Japan. Tourism is also a vital earner of foreign exchange. Communications Of the more than 50 major daily newspapers published in Mexico, about 30% are headquartered in the Mexico City area. There are well over 100 television stations and several hundred radio stations. GOVERNMENT Mexico's present constitution was adopted in 1917 and in much amended form provides for a division of powers between the central government and the 31 states and the federal district (Mexico City). It provides also for a strong executive branch of government headed by a directly elected president who is limited to one six-year term. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral National Congress, elected by universal adult suffrage, comprising a Chamber of Deputies, with 500 members, and a Senate, composed of two senators from each state and the federal district. Judicial powers are vested in the Supreme Court of Justice. The Institutional Revolutionary party (\TPRI\t) has dominated national politics since 1930. On Dec. 1, 1982, Miguel \Tde la Madrid Hurtado\t took office as president. In December 1988 the \TPRI\t candidate Carlos \TSalinas de Gortari\t, a principal architect of the government's economic policy, took office as president. Maria Teresa Gutierrez de MacGregor Bibliography: Camp, Roderic A., Mexico's Political Stability: The Next Five Years (1986); Eckstein, Susan, The Poverty of Revolution (1977); Grayson, G.W., Prospects for Democracy in Mexico, aug. ed. (1989); Grindle, Merilee S., Bureaucrats, Politicians and Peasants in Mexico (1977); Hamilton, Nora, and Harding, Timothy F., eds., Modern Mexico: State, Economy, and Social Conflict (1986); Hellman, Judith A., Mexico in Crisis, 2d ed. (1983); Kaufman, S., ed., The Politics of Mexican Oil (1981); Ladman, J. R., ed., Mexico (1987); Lewis, Oscar, Children of Sanchez (1961); Newell, Robert, and Rubio, Luis, Mexico's Dilemma: The Political Origins of Economic Crisis (1985); Philip, George, ed., Politics in Mexico (1985); Reck, Gregory C., In The Shadow of Tlaloc (1978); Rudolph, James D., ed., Mexico: A Country Study, 3d ed. (1985); Schmitt, Karl M., Mexico and the United States, 1821-1973 (1974); Smith, Peter H., Mexico: Neighbor in Transition (1984) and Labyrinths of Power (1979); Turner, Frederick C., The Dynamic of Mexican Nationalism (1968); Vazquez, J. Z., and Meyer, L., The United States and Mexico (1985).