The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is an Arab nation in southwest Asia at the northwest corner of the Arabian Peninsula. A small country, Jordan is bounded on the west by Israel and the Israeli-occupied \TWest Bank\t (whose final status is yet to be determined), on the north by Syria, and on the east by Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Only a 19-km (12-mi) southern coastline on the Gulf of Aqaba, a northern arm of the Red Sea, prevents the country from being completely landlocked. \TAmman\t, the capital and dominant city, is located about 40 km (25 mi) east of the Jordan River. Since the creation (1948) of the state of Israel, Jordan has experienced a large influx of Palestinian refugees, straining the nation's meager resource base and involving it in the issue of Palestinian autonomy. Jordan's former official area of 97,740 sq km (37,738 sq mi) included the West Bank and East Jerusalem, with an area of 5,878 sq km (2,270 sq mi). This area, which had been designated as Arab by the United Nations when it voted in 1947 to divide \TPalestine\t into Arab and Jewish states, was occupied by Jordanian forces during the first of the \TArab-Israeli Wars\t and was formally annexed by Jordan in 1950. The Jordanian annexation, however, was not recognized by the United Nations or by any nation except Great Britain and Pakistan, and the area has been occupied by Israel since the Arab-Israeli War of 1967. Jordan implicitly renounced its West bank claims at a 1974 Arab summit meeting when it signed the Rabat resolution, which declared the \TPalestine Liberation Organization\t (\TPLO\t) the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. On July 31, 1988, Jordan announced that it was officially severing all legal and administrative ties to the West Bank and surrendering its claims to the \TPLO\t. LAND About 6% of Jordan's area is arable, more than 90% is desert, and 1% is forested. Jordan is composed of two major landform regions: the Jordan Valley, and the Transjordan Plateau. The flat-floored valley of the Jordan River is part of the \TGreat Rift Valley\t. The \TDead Sea\t, the saltiest lake on earth, occupies the lowest portion of this depression. Only 108 km (67 mi) separate the Sea of Galilee (see \TGalilee, Sea of\t) in the north from the Dead Sea in the south; but the Jordan River, connecting the two lakes, meanders to such a degree that its course is twice that distance. Most of Jordan is part of the Transjordan Plateau, a great upthrust block that is part of the Arabian Plateau. Its western edge forms a 610-915 m (2,000-3,000 ft) escarpment above the Jordan River. It rises to a maximum height of 1,754 m (5,755 ft) at Mount Ramm, near Aqaba. Geologically, recent lava flows cover portions of northern and eastern Jordan. Wheat grows well where this rock has weathered to form rich, brown soils, and where moisture is sufficient. The fertile, alluvial soils of the Jordan River valley are also agriculturally important. The \TSyrian Desert\t covers most of the northeast. Climate A Mediterranean climate characterizes much of Jordan. The summers are long, hot, and dry, and the winters mild with periods of precipitation. The northern and western parts of Jordan receive more moisture than the south and east. Light snow occasionally falls in the Jerusalem area and the northern uplands. The deserts of southern and eastern Jordan receive as little as 50 mm (2 in) of rainfall annually. Temperatures here are more extreme than in the western and northern regions where yearly precipitation averages 400 mm (16 in). In the Jordan Valley, summer daytime temperatures reach 32 deg C (90 deg F), and winter nighttime temperatures drop below freezing. Drainage The Jordan River is the heart of the country's drainage system. Many of its tributaries originate in the mountains of southern Lebanon and Syria. The Transjordan Plateau to the east is dissected by the deep valleys of intermittent streams draining into the Jordan River. The largest tributary entering from the east is the Yarmuk, a permanent river that follows part of the border between Syria and Jordan. Wells provide additional water throughout much of the country, but drilling is expensive and frequently beyond locally available technology. Vegetation and Wildlife Much of Jordan is dry, and the ground is generally rocky with sparse vegetation. Patches of coniferous forests are found in the northwest; willow, oleander, and tamarisk grow along the lower Jordan River valley. Low shrubs, thorny bushes, and seasonal grasses dot the semiarid regions and the desert margins. Wild boars, ibex, foxes, jackals, wildcats, hyenas, wolves, hare, and some panthers can be found in isolated gorges, particularly south of the Sea of Galilee. Birds are plentiful. The eastern steppe and desert areas have little game. PEOPLE More than 90% of all Jordanians are Arabs. In 1987, 845,542 Palestinian refugees were registered in Jordan with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA). The remainder of the population is largely descended from \TBedouin\t Arabs. Arabic is the official language, although English is widely used. Islam is the state religion. Sunni Muslims vastly outnumber both Shiite Muslims and Christians; most of the latter are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Palestinian refugees live in camps administered by the UNRWA. Most other Jordanians live in towns and villages, although nomadic and seminomadic Bedouins inhabit the deserts and steppes. After Amman, important urban centers include \TAqaba\t, Irbid, Madaba, Ramtha, Salt, and Zarqa. Education and Health The vast majority of all 6- to 11-year-olds are enrolled in free elementary schools. Compulsory schooling lasts for 9 years. The University of Jordan (1962) serves the East Bank, but many students study abroad. The government provides medical and welfare assistance. Palestinian refugee children are educated by the UNRWA, which also maintains its own hospitals and a refugee welfare program. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY When Jordan annexed the West Bank and Israel East Jerusalem in 1950, it more than doubled its population, greatly increased its productive agricultural land, and added numerous tourist attractions. The Israeli occupation of the West Bank swelled the Palestinian refugee population in Jordan proper and hampered development efforts. Largely due to foreign aid from Arab oil-producing countries and remittances from Jordanians working abroad, however, the country experienced steady economic growth from 1974 to 1980. Both of these sources of income declined in the 1980s, as did the world price for phosphate, Jordan's leading export. After the signing of the 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, Iraq and Kuwait had replaced Egypt as Jordan's leading trade partners. Trade links with Egypt were restored in 1983. Jordan was economically devastated by the boycott imposed on trade with Iraq and Kuwait after the August 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and further burdened by an influx of refugees from those countries. By the end of the \TPersian Gulf War\t, Jordan's gross national product had declined by as much as 70%, and its pro-Iraqi stance during the conflict cost it substantial foreign aid. Manufacturing Although Jordan produces cement, refined petroleum, cigarettes, olive oil, soap, leather, and clay, most industry has not developed far beyond the handicraft stage. Obstacles to industrial development include the paucity of natural resources, the limited local market, prohibitive transport costs, and lack of energy resources such as hydroelectric power and petroleum reserves. Imported petroleum supplies most of Jordan's energy; oil supplies were disrupted by the 1990-91 Gulf crisis. Phosphate, salt, potash, limestone, gypsum, and marble are extracted. Agriculture Wheat, barley, lentils, vegetables, melons, and citrus fruits are the chief crops, but corn (maize), sesame, tobacco, olives, dates, and nuts are also grown. Because they can survive on sparse grass cover, goats and sheep are the most important livestock. Cattle raising takes place in the river valleys, and camels survive in the deserts. Small catches of fish are taken at Aqaba and from the Jordan and Yarmuk rivers. Many farmers are small landowners, although tenancy is still common. In 1967, Jordan completed the East Gher Canal Project that uses water from the Yarmuk River for irrigation. Subsequent land reform, along with improved water management and cultivation practices, vastly strengthened Jordan's agricultural base. Transportation Paved and gravel roads link most of Jordan's villages and towns. The government operates a railroad that runs northward from just to the south of Ma'an through Amman to the Syrian border. The Trans-Arabian oil pipeline runs for 177 km (110 mi) through Jordan en route from Saudi Arabia to the Mediterranean coast of Lebanon. Radio and television stations are government operated. Trade In international trade, Jordan's imports habitually exceed exports. Annual grants-in-aid from Arab states and the United States help to offset this trade deficit. The Arab states and India are Jordan's most important foreign customers. Agricultural crops, particularly vegetables, and phosphates are the primary exports. Imports include foods, machinery, textiles, and military equipment. GOVERNMENT Jordan is a constitutional monarchy. Its constitution, adopted in 1952, provides for a prime minister appointed by the king. A cabinet is named by the prime minister. The king also selects the 30 members of the Senate for 8-year terms. The members of the House of Representatives are popularly elected for 4-year terms. The lower house, which included members representing the West Bank until 1988, was dissolved by the king in 1974 and reconvened briefly in 1976 and again from 1984 to 1988, when Jordan severed its legal and administrative links to the Israeli-occupied territories. In 1989 the lower house was expanded from 60 to 80 seats, and the first national elections since 1967 (and the first in which women could vote) were held. The judges of the separate Muslim and Christian religious courts are appointed by the king. Jordan is divided into 9 governorates, each headed by a centrally appointed governor. HISTORY Village life in Jordan dates from at least 8000 BC at \TJericho\t. Hebrew states developed on the hills west of the Jordan River, while the small states of \TEdom\t, \TGilead\t, \TMoab\t, and Ammon were settled east of the Jordan River. The area was frequently invaded by the Assyrians, Egyptians, Babylonians, and Persians. In the 4th century BC the northern area was incorporated into the kingdom of the \TSeleucids\t, but the south was ruled by the Arab tribe of Nabataeans, who established their capital at \TPetra\t. The Romans displaced the Seleucids in the 1st century BC, but Petra did not fall to Rome until AD 106. The Muslim Arabs dominated from the 7th century until the 16th century, except for an interlude of Crusader control (see \TJerusalem, Latin Kingdom of\t). The Ottoman Turks conquered the area in 1517. After the Turkish defeat in World War I, the territory of Jordan became part of the short-lived Syrian kingdom of \TFaisal I\t (later king of Iraq). After Faisal's defeat by French forces in 1920, Transjordan was incorporated into Britain's League of Nations' mandate of \TPalestine\t. Transjordan was treated separately from Palestine, however, and its residents were assured that it would not be affected by the establishment of a Jewish homeland in the future. \TAbdullah\t, Faisal's brother, was chosen to rule Transjordan in 1921. He cooperated closely with the British, who helped create the Arab Legion, a small army later commanded by Sir John \TGlubb\t. In 1928 a treaty with Britain made Transjordan a constitutional monarchy. A second treaty with the British on Mar. 22, 1946, created the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Transjordan opposed the partition of Palestine and joined the other \TArab League\t nations in fighting the new Israeli state in 1948 (see \TArab-Israeli Wars\t). By the end of the war it occupied a section of West Bank territory designated for the Arabs in the United Nations partition plan. The country's name was changed to Jordan in 1949, and in 1950 it formally annexed the West Bank territory, including Old Jerusalem. Abdullah was assassinated in 1951, and a year later his son Talal was forced to abdicate in favor of Talal's son \THussein I\t. Hussein established greater independence from Britain, especially after 1956, but his relations with the other Arab countries were somewhat strained. In the Six-Day War of June 1967, Jordan's forces were routed by the Israelis, who then occupied the West Bank territories. As a result Jordan, which already had many Palestinian refugees, received a new influx. Guerrilla groups were formed among the refugees, and they not only challenged the authority of Hussein but made Jordan a target for Israeli attacks. In 1970 civil war erupted between government and guerrilla forces, and the following year Hussein succeeded in destroying the guerrilla bases in Jordan. Jordan, like other Arab states, condemned the 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, breaking diplomatic ties with Egypt from 1979 to 1984. A joint peace effort launched in 1985 by Hussein and \TPLO\t leader Yasir \TArafat\t, collapsed in 1986. In July 1988, frustrated by the lack of progress in the peace process and mounting Palestinian criticism, Hussein formally severed all links between Jordan and the West Bank in favor of the \TPLO\t. Legislative elections were held in 1989, and martial law (imposed in 1967) was virtually abolished by 1991, when a new national charter lifted a 1957 ban on political parties. Many Jordanians (particularly Palestinian refugees) supported the August 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Jordan's leading trading partners had been Iraq and Kuwait, and it was economically devastated by the boycott subsequently imposed on Iraq and further burdened by an influx of refugees from Kuwait and Iraq. King Hussein advocated a negotiated Arab solution to the crisis and refused to join the U.S.-led anti-Iraq alliance in the \TPersian Gulf War\t (1991). Late in 1991 a delegation made up of Jordanians and non-\TPLO\t Palestinians from the Israeli occupied territories participated in a new regional peace process initiated by the United States. J. Rowland Illick Bibliography: Badran, A., and Khader, B., The Economic Development of Jordan (1986); Bailey, C., Jordan's Palestinian Challenge (1985); Cordesman, A. H., Jordanian Arms and the Middle East Balance (1983); Dann, U., Studies in the History of Transjordan (1984), and King Hussein and the Challenge of Arab Radicalism (1989); Glubb, J. B., Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan (1967); Gubser, P., Jordan (1982); Khouri, R. G., The Jordan Valley (1982); Nyrop, R. F., et al., Jordan: A Country Study (1980; repr. 1987); Plascov, A., The Palestinian Refugees in Jordan (1981); Shlaim, A., Collusion across the Jordan (1988); Wilson, M. C., King Abdullah, Britain, and the Making of Jordan (1988).