The history of furniture and of its manufacture are the two major topics of this article. Furniture originated as utilitarian, functional objects. In prehistory there were needs to be met: something to sit on, something to sleep in, and eventually something in which to store things. The objects created to meet these needs were, by definition, utilitarian. Then, at some time so remote that it cannot be pinpointed, groups arose whose members desired objects that were both utilitarian and attractively decorated, or, in short, decorative furniture. That this transition took place thousands of years ago cannot be doubted. DECORATIVE FURNITURE The first sophisticated cultures of which there is any knowledge--the Chinese, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans--all had highly developed forms of decorative furniture. The styles and techniques manifested in these pieces could only have been the end result of a long period of development. Origins of Decorated Furniture Decoration in furniture is part of the general artistic development of society, although almost certainly a later manifestation. That is, the society that has developed elaborately decorated furnishings invariably will also have a highly sophisticated tradition of painting and sculpture. Moreover, it seems quite clear that the latter developments preceded the former. For example, there is no evidence that the people who produced the cave paintings of Altamira (c.13,500 BC) or the sculptured limestone form of the Venus of Willendorf (c.30,000-25,000 BC; Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna) ever used furniture, much less decorative furniture. Thousands of years later their descendants in Spain, France, and Germany began to make the furniture for which these areas are now famous. It is clear, however, that early decoration was different from that of later epochs in both nature and purpose. All early art, whether a rock painting or a carved chief's stool, served a ritual, magical purpose. Even in this century the painted or carved headmen's seats of Africa and the Pacific Islands were clearly understood within the society to be more than attractive pieces of furniture. They were symbols of power, and it is safe to assume that all decoration initially was intended to reinforce this purpose--to propitiate the gods, to bring luck, or to ward off evil. Only with the development of a cultural level in which people perceive themselves has having some control over their destiny does true decoration--art for its own sake, for pleasure--begin to appear. The role of the artist-decorator-designer is directly related to the way in which people view the resultant work. In a culture in which decoration is considered to have supernatural attributes, the designer is a priest with status and direct access to the temporal rulers. In a society in which people assume the roles of gods, the decorator serves their purposes. The artist may then be a mere anonymous artisan or such an artist may find favor in high places and become rich and powerful. Thus such designers as Juste Aurele \TMeissonnier\t, a favorite of Louis XV, wielded political influence far in excess of their social status because they created styles of furniture that found favor with the ruling nobility. What is considered decorative may vary depending upon social whim. The painted pine and fir furniture of central Europe and North America, for example, was certainly intended by its creators to be decorative, but it was many years before tastemakers in the business of antique furniture considered it anything more than a crude imitation of more costly furnishings. Such changes in taste may have an interesting effect on the value of decorative furniture. A marquetry desk by the German designer David Roentgen (1743-1807) cost hundreds of dollars when made. Today it would cost many thousands. Yet the percentage of increase in its value cannot be compared with that of a painted Pennsylvania dower chest that might have sold in 1790 for $3.00 and which today could bring $13,000 or more. Types and Techniques What is called decorative furniture is found in every part of the world. In certain regions, such as the Pacific islands and the desert areas of the Near East, custom and climate have militated against the use of many types of furniture; yet those forms which do exist--small chests and low tables in Persia, for example--may be plain and functional in form but elaborately decorated. Decoration varies from country to country. Carving is certainly one of the earliest techniques employed, and at certain times, such as during the European Gothic period, it was predominant. Painting or staining is equally pervasive. On the other hand, certain sophisticated techniques have had more limited application. The use of wood veneer and \Tmarquetry\t (wood inlay in contrasting light and dark patterns), ormolu (the application of gilt-bronze mounts), and the use of lacquerwork imply a technical development limited primarily to the more advanced cultures of Asia and Europe. Yet in the societies where these advanced techniques do appear they are frequently of great age. Veneering and inlaying with semiprecious stones, ivory, metal, and mother-of-pearl were practiced in Egypt as long ago as the Early Dynastic Period (c.3100-2613 BC). Egyptian Furniture Egypt, in fact, was one of the earliest centers for the making of decorative furnishings. The tombs of the Nile Valley have yielded a rich store of chests, tables, stools, and beds. These were embellished in many different ways. Chairs were often painted a dead white, whereas storage chests were boldly stained with bands of geometric decoration. Gilding was used extensively. Varnishes and waxed finishes were also applied to the wood, and carving was common. Chair and table legs were usually carved in the shape of a curved animal leg terminating in a bull hoof or lion paw. Greek and Roman Furniture Greece, between 1200 and 300 BC, produced an even greater variety of decorative furniture. Native olive, yew, and cedar wood were turned, carved, painted, and inlaid with precious stones. Cast bronze legs in animal form were applied to chairs and tables whose forms were low and curvilinear. Chests were covered with a rich gilt and inlaid with ivory, and the heavily carved couches of the period resembled elongated thrones. As in Egypt, the way of life dictated light, movable pieces; most furniture was portable or even collapsible, as illustrated by the folding X or scissors chair, a form still popular today. A far greater variety of forms developed in ancient Rome, in part because the Romans freely adopted and modified the furnishings of Greece and Egypt. Carving was of great importance to the Roman artisan, who cut chair and settee backs to imitate the heads of mules or horses and who used the curving cabriole or animal leg freely. Many other techniques were also utilized. Beds and couches were mounted on lathe-turned legs, painted in bright colors or inlaid in contrasting woods, and mounted with brass fittings. A great many different types of chairs, tables, stools, and pedestals were created, and every type of decorative technique known at the time was employed in their manufacture. Roman style and methods were not only important at that time but also played a major role in the development of later European design. Chinese Furniture China was the great Eastern cabinetmaking center, although the significance of early Chinese furnishings has come to be truly appreciated in the West only within the last 100 years. No one knows when the first of these pieces was made, but miniature furniture found in tombs of the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220) display a wide variety of furnishings, including chairs, cupboards of several sizes, tables, and chests. These differ from occidental examples in several ways. First, they have a sophisticated flowing line not unlike that of modern bentwood and tubular-steel furniture. In this respect Chinese furniture is far more "modern" than any other found in the ancient world. Secondly, decoration is by most standards limited. The pieces are made almost exclusively of rich, fine-grained hardwoods such as ebony, rosewood, or sandalwood, polished to a high natural-color finish. Carving, when used, is generally confined to small areas; and such fittings as locks and drawer pulls (generally of brass or iron) are of much greater visual importance. Inlay in brass, copper, pewter, or marble is applied to flat surfaces but never in the quantity found on Roman and Egyptian furniture. Lacquerwork or japanning is, of course, traditionally associated with Chinese taste; but, in fact, the process of applying a lacquer finish (involving the painting on and polishing of countless layers of shellac) was so time-consuming and expensive that only in palaces would one find complete suites of lacquer furniture. Similarly, teak, regarded by many as the traditional Chinese furniture wood, was rarely used prior to the 19th century, and only then in pieces intended for export to Europe. The bulk of Chinese furniture continued to be made of the traditional materials and in traditional ways, characteristics that lingered well into this century. Byzantine Furniture Unlike the relatively static style of China, European furniture, in form and decoration, reflects periodic changes over the course of time. The earliest European influence was that of Greece and Rome. As mentioned above, Roman crafts had reached a high degree of sophistication well before the birth of Christ. However, following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, much of this skill was lost to Europe. It persisted, however, in the East, where the ancient city of Byzantium had been designated in AD 330 as Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (commonly called the Byzantine Empire). Constantinople flourished until 1453, and Byzantine furniture forms had a profound influence on the styles of Italy and, indeed, on all of western Europe. The Byzantine style was essentially a mixture of Greco-Roman and Oriental elements, and nearly all the surviving finer furniture made in this manner was intended for royal or ecclesiastical use. The general form was Roman, but superimposed upon this was profuse ornamentation in the Eastern mode--that is, an emphasis on curvilinear and geometric forms with much mosaic inlay in gold, glass, and stone. Contrary to Roman practice, human and animal figures were less often incorporated, and decorative elements tended to be stiff and conventionalized rather than fluid. Medieval European Furniture Although its influence waned with time, Byzantine taste was dominant in the eastern Mediterranean until the 15th century. Farther west, however, furniture, decorated or not, became an uncommon luxury during the so-called Dark Ages in Europe. Very little has survived from the Merovingian (c.500-750), Carolingian (c.750-950), and Ottonian (c.950-1050) periods. The bronze chair known as the "Throne of Dagobert" (early 9th century; Louvre, Paris), the best-known example of Carolingian furniture, clearly reveals its Roman ancestry. What style there was in this area came in the Romanesque period (beginning c.1050), also reflecting its origin in a debased Roman style. Furniture forms, in contrast to those of the Eastern Empire, were few--primarily, chests, tables, and stools--and decoration was almost exclusively carved, chiefly in the form of primitive, vigorous floral motifs. The wood of choice was oak, and furnishings were crude and heavy, reflecting the limited technical knowledge of the time. Gothic Furniture By the 12th century, however, conditions in western Europe had begun to improve. Nation-states started to emerge and with them a more settled life. The dominant factor in this era--which came to be known as the Gothic--was the church, and the dominant masters were the architects and stonemasons. Building on the existing Romanesque style, architects in France and later in the rest of western Europe began to construct massive churches whose form influenced nearly everything else made during the period. This was particularly true of the furniture, whose makers borrowed not only decorative details but even construction methods (the skeleton framework) from the stonemasons. Gothic furniture is essentially rectilinear in concept, and its decorative motifs--round or pointed arches, carved tracery, pillars and buttresses--are taken directly from church architecture of the time. As in the preceding era, carving was the preferred method of embellishment, with native plant forms such as grape and maple leaves, wild cress, and parsley dominating the foliage; figural subjects, primarily birds and animals or humans in grotesque forms, were also used. Oak and walnut, both of which lend themselves to carving, were the preferred timbers, and carving and molding often almost entirely covered the surface of a piece. Toward the end of the period painted decoration became popular, but sophisticated techniques such as inlay were almost entirely absent in furnture; nor was there a great variety of forms. The greatest decorative skill was lavished on chests and coffers, but stools, benches, tables, and a very few chairs were also made. Befitting their dominant position, the clergy had a somewhat greater range of furnishings. Altars, screens, and desks (often embellished with the layered "linenfold" carving characteristic of the period) were found in churches and monasteries, but nowhere did there exist the variety of furniture that would be found in subsequent periods. Renaissance Furniture The Gothic mode, although exceedingly popular in northern Europe, made little headway in Italy, and by 1400 a new style was rapidly developing there. This was the Renaissance style, a mixture of native Greco- Roman forms and Eastern ideas derived from Constantinople. Renaissance decoration, far more elaborate than its Romanesque predecessor, was imposed upon furniture, which was constructed by cabinetmakers who were becoming artists. The widespread use of mill-sawed and lathe-turned wood led to the making of lighter, well-constructed furnishings, while the range of timbers employed was expanded to include walnut, pine, ebony, and other woods. Decoration became varied and complex. To the catalog of Gothic decorative motifs were added those of the East: stars, crescents, and the intertwining scrollwork known as the arabesque. From the East also came intarsia, the inlay in wood of bone, shell, and metal. Gilding became popular again, as it had been in Roman times; famous painters of the day, such as \TPiero di Cosimo\t, vied for the opportunity to decorate the storage chests and cupboards of their royal patrons. Carving, however, continued to be popular, improving in both quality and variety as it moved from the structural rigidity of architectural forms into the province of the sculptor. A great variety of new furnishings appeared at this time including, in Italy, the cassone, a very large storage chest, and, in Spain, a framed drop-front desk, the vargueno, which was carved, inlaid, and painted with the greatest care. Also in Spain iron and leather were first used extensively in the construction and decoration of furniture. Baroque Furniture By the middle of the 16th century a new style, the baroque, was emerging, first in Italy and later in France where, under Louis XIV, cabinetmaking became a recipient of royal patronage and subject to royal control. The first ebeniste du roi (cabinetmaker to the king) was Andre Charles \TBoulle\t, appointed in 1672, whose furniture epitomizes the baroque style. Baroque furniture is characterized by strong emphasis on decoration and a reduced concern with form. Scale is deliberately distorted, and carving grows lavish with deep moldings, sinuous twisted scrollwork, and pediments of gigantic proportions in relation to the pieces they crown. Carving was the most important decorative technique employed in the baroque style. Veneering was also popular, however, and marquetry was practiced, as was inlay in gilt, bronze, and marble; marble inlay was used extensively for tabletops made in Italy and exported. Chairs, the forms of which were now many and varied, were also carved and frequently covered with stamped and gilded leather studded with nailheads in the Spanish manner. Rococo Furniture The disenchantment with form continued during the following period, the rococo (1700-75). The term rococo is derived from rocaille, the French word for shellwork in garden grottoes. Rococo furniture is typically light in weight and feeling with curving, asymmetrical forms lushly decorated with floral and animal motifs. Surface decoration, including gilding, painting, carving, and application of gilt bronze ornaments, almost totally dissolves the outline of individual furniture pieces, as in the furniture of Jean Francois \TOeben\t and Jean Henri \TRiesener\t. The greatest patron of the \Trococo style\t was Louis XV of France; French decorative furniture in the Louis XV style is scarce and costly and is considered by many to be among the finest ever made. There is no question that it is extraordinary in execution and in form. New forms, such as the slant-front desk, were invented; old forms changed their appearance, as the curved cabriole leg was applied to tables and chairs and chests of drawers assumed swelling bombe, or bulging, serpentine fronts. (See \Tstyles of Louis XIII-XVI\t.) In England a more conservative mode prevailed in the baroque and rococo periods, typified by the \TQueen Anne style\t--with cabriole legs, graceful curves, and opulent carving, as in the work of Grinling \TGibbons\t. Publication of Thomas \TChippendale\t's Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Directory (1754) heralded the birth of a style that owed much to the influence of imported Chinese furnishings. The German style of baroque and rococo furniture achieved its own exuberant flowering, especially in Munich in the work of Francois \TCuvillies\t for the Bavarian royal family. His Reiche Zimmer (Rich Rooms, c.1750) in the Munich Residenz and his furnishings for his AMALIEN PAVILION (1734-40) in the park of \TNymphenburg Palace\t are considered the highest achievements of the German rococo style. Neoclassic Furniture In time the lush decoration and irregular form of the rococo went out of fashion, and after 1770 cabinetmakers sought new inspiration, which they found in the recently discovered Roman ruins at Herculaneum and Pompeii, first excavated in 1748, and in the general interest in antiquity called \Tneoclassicism\t. From the architectural forms and wall paintings found in Pompeii such designers as Robert \TAdam\t in England and David Roentgen in Germany developed a new style--the neoclassic (1770-1810). Carving and curvilinear form, so popular in the two previous periods, now nearly disappeared and was replaced by strong vertical and horizontal lines, combined with delicate construction and flat panels decorated with contrasting veneers or painted designs. Furniture legs became long and slim with a square taper or a reeded form. Fluting and grooving emphasized the verticality of the pieces, and moldings and feet took the forms of the capitals and bases of Greek and Roman columns. Decorative devices were used more sparingly, and those employed were classical in form, such as the oak leaf, the urn, and the Greek palm. Brass and gilt continued to be used but only in delicate, small-scale fittings. Empire Furniture Neoclassicism came late to France and was soon replaced, first by the \TDirectoire style\t and soon after by Napoleon's version of the classic revival, known appropriately as the \TEmpire style\t. Empire furniture is characterized by absolute symmetry, heavy proportions, and wide, flat surfaces, sparse molding and decoration, and veneering. Carving, except on chair arms and table legs, is rare, and ormolu is used with a certain restraint. Motifs and forms were inspired by Egyptian, Greek, and Roman furniture. The Empire style was enthusiastically adopted in England and particularly so in the United States, as in the work of Lambert \THitchcock\t and Duncan \TPhyfe\t. In Germany and Austria the Empire style formed the basis for the pervasive \TBiedermeier\t style, an even simpler and heavier version of Empire. Victorian Furniture The Victorian era, spanning the reign of the British queen Victoria (1837-1901), spawned the greatest proliferation of decorative furniture ever seen. This was in part due to the eclectic nature of design during the era. Rather than working within a single, dominant style as had previously been the custom, furniture makers borrowed and adapted elements from numerous previous eras, using them interchangeably in bewildering combinations. The proliferation of Victorian furniture was also made possible by the mechanization of furniture manufacture, which took place in the 1840s. The development of mechanical presses and veneer-cutting machinery allowed for the rapid and inexpensive (if not always artistic) creation of decorative furniture. Moreover, improvements in transportation made the finest and most exotic woods--mahogany, rosewood, teak, ebony, and the like--readily available throughout the world in quantity. As a consequence, a great variety of decorative furniture was produced. In some pieces carving was the dominant element. The carved and pressed oak furniture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries has for some years been very popular with collectors. Intended originally as plain, inexpensive ware, such pieces are now almost luxury items. Other Victorian furnishings are more elaborate. Pieces were made of mahogany, rosewood, and walnut veneer, while other pieces were inlaid with ceramic title, colored glass, or various metals. Stylistic adaptations hark back to other eras. Victorian Gothic is carved to imitate 14th-century church furnishings, while Renaissance Revival pieces show a strong, if archaic, Italian influence. The Victorian era's final flowering was in the style called \TArt Nouveau\t, related to the rococo style and directly inspired by the \TArts and Crafts movement\t. Art Nouveau furniture is characterized by sinuous, flowing lines and rich contrasts of light and shadow, as in the desks, tables, and chairs designed by the French architect Hector \TGuimard\t. In spite of all the eclectic revivals of the 19th century, certain important advances were made: the American John \TBelter\t created laminated wood furniture beginning about 1845; and in 1841, Michael Thonet of Vienna patented the bentwood process. These new techniques had a profound influence on later furniture design and manufacture. Meanwhile, taste was changing once again, with a reaction to Victorian decorative excesses. Under the influence of the Arts and Crafts movement in England, led by William Morris, and in the United States, led by such Morris disciples as designers Elbert Hubbard (1865-1915) and Gustav Stickley (1847-1942), a new style emerged. Mission, as it was called in the United States, emphasized square-cut, heavy oak furniture upholstered in leather. Popular in the early 20th century, the style was revived beginning in the 1970s, both for collectors and for buyers of contemporary copies. Scandinavian and Bauhaus Furniture Early in this century, designers in Scandinavia began to employ wood and steel in a large repertoire of what is now called "modern" furniture. Such designer-architects as Alvar \TAalto\t of Finland and Arne \TJacobsen\t of Denmark set style precedents that are still followed. However, the strongest influence on modern furnishings was the Paris Exposition Universelle des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes of 1925, at which the \TBauhaus\t architects Ludwig \TMies van der Rohe\t and Marcel \TBreuer\t showed the first modern nickel-plated steel furniture as well as adaptations and updated versions of Thonet's bentwood furniture. These pieces, severely elegant and simple, became 20th- century classics that influenced all subsequent designers. The Paris Exposition also launched the style now called \TArt Deco\t, which had its roots in the Viennese SECCESSION MOVEMENT of the first decade of the 20th century. Art Deco furniture, like its architecture, is sleek, streamlined, and decorated with geometric designs and abstracted natural forms. This style was in vogue until 1939 and then experienced a revival of interest in the 1960s and '70s. Contemporary Furniture Many 20th-century furniture designers have been architects, including Frank Lloyd \TWright\t, Charles and Henry Greene (see \TGreene and Greene\t), Eero \TSaarinen\t, and Charles \TEames\t in the United States. Their furniture was usually designed for their own buildings, but much of it was capable of mass manufacture, such as Saarinen's pedestal chair of molded plastic and the so-called Eames chair (in fact designed by Eames and Saarinen) of molded plywood upholstered in leather. The popularity of the Eames and Saarinen designs was a part of a shift toward simple, functional furniture, along with a revival and adaptation of earlier Scandinavian designs. Synthetic materials have been adopted rapidly in furniture design and manufacture. Line is all important, and decoration as it existed in the 19th century and before has effectively ceased to exist (except in rare and expensive pieces made by hand--and often created by artists rather than designers). In part, the disappearance of decoration is a matter of taste, but it also reflects the fact that artisans are no longer trained to do this sort of work. Late 20th-century trends in furniture fashions show a wide-ranging eclecticism, as styles from almost every period reemerge--although the basic, boxy Scandinavian look continues to dominate in inexpensive, mass-market furniture. Artistry and craftsmanship are still valued, however, as the works of master carpenter George Nakashima, or the Shaker-styled cabinetry of one-of-a-kind furniture makers attest. William C. Ketchum, Jr. FURNITURE MANUFACTURE Furniture making remained a handicraft until the early 19th century, when water- and steam-powered tools came into widespread use. Powered saws could cut and shape wood pieces quickly and in quantity; large steam-driven presses made it possible to stamp decorative patterns on wood instead of laboriously carving them by hand. These labor-saving devices also reduced the role of the individual artisan. Whereas a carpenter had once undergone a long apprenticeship and had learned how to produce an entire piece of furniture from scratch, such a person was now responsible only for a single process in the production line, for example, the turning of chair legs or the gluing of drawer joints. Early Factory Systems The chair factory established (1818) by the American furniture maker Lambert \THitchcock\t was typical of the early factory systems. Situated on the Barkhamsted River in Connecticut, the factory was almost completely water powered, and the individual pieces of each chair were sawed, planed, and turned by machine. Assembly, painting, and the elaborate stenciling that became a Hitchcock trademark were done by hand but on a production line. In the United States industrialization was accelerated by the expansion of migration to the West. The thousands of new settlers in the frontier territories created a huge new market for inexpensive furniture. In Grand Rapids, Mich., and in other cities on the fringes of settlement, a number of factories began to pour out furniture in unprecedented volume. Mass production cut costs so low that inexpensive pieces were offered as premiums to purchasers of soaps and perfumes. Eventually, the name Borax became an epithet that signified cheap, shoddy, mass-produced furniture. By the end of the 19th century, furniture handcrafts that had once flourished were now used only by custom shops making expensive furniture to order or by people interested in the arts-and-crafts revival. Influence of Technology on Design Throughout the 19th century factory-made furniture imitated traditional styles. It was not until the early 20th century that designers began to consider the potential offered by mass-production techniques. In Germany the Bauhaus School (founded 1919) attempted to design objects that were attractive, simple, and reproducible in quantity, although perhaps expensive. In the United States the modernist movement achieved wide recognition beginning only in the 1930s; with such designers as Charles Eames, Paul McCobb, T. H. Robsjohu-Gibbings, and Eero Saarinen. Their designs eventually transformed the manufacture of furniture allowing the introduction of simple, undecorated surfaces, functional shapes, and a range of new materials: glass, chrome, steel, aluminum, and plastic. Contemporary Manufacture Contemporary wood furniture frequently uses a combination of wood with such composite materials as Masonite and plywood. Wood surfaces are usually made of a thin veneer laid over a less expensive wood. Many modern veneers are made of plastic or plastic-covered wood. Mass-produced furniture parts are machine cut and machine sanded and assembled with powered hand tools or with mechanically applied glues. The component parts of flat-surfaced furniture, such as chests and tables, are often spray painted on a moving belt, in a completely automatic process. More complicated or expensive pieces are stained and varnished by hand. The development of quick-setting, permanent-bonding glues and of new techniques in lamination and high-pressure processes has encouraged the creation of new furniture forms. A one-piece molded chair body, for example, can be produced by gluing many layers of thin wood veneer together, then molding the veneer block into a chair shape in a heat press. Plastic furniture shapes are molded or cast, and molded plastic or fiberglass is also used--instead of wood--for the skeletons of furniture to be covered by upholstery. The cushions used on contemporary styles are usually filled with sponge rubber or plastic foam. For traditional chairs and sofas, however, traditional handcrafts are still used. Coiled steel springs are tied in a lacing of burlap webbing and attached to the furniture frame. The springs are embedded in a bulky filling material, such as foam rubber, are then covered with a soft padding layered to the desired shape of the piece, and are finished with upholstery fabric. The use of mechanical knives to cut many layers of fabric into the necessary shapes and the replacement of upholsterer's tacks by air-driven staples are the only modern innovations in the upholstering process. Knockdown and Do-It-Yourself Furniture A knockdown table or chest of drawers, purchased disassembled and packed in a flat box, can be put together with glue and a few screws. Home-assembled furniture has been made possible by modern machining methods that can produce furniture components to precise size tolerances, and by joining and finishing techniques that are so simple an amateur can easily build attractive pieces from precut components. Bibliography: \Tdecorative\t \Tfurniture\t: Allwood, Rosamond, Victorian Furniture, 1837-1887 (1990); Aronson, Joseph, The New Encyclopedia of Furniture, 3d ed. (1967); Baker, Hollis S., Furniture in the Ancient World: Origins and Evolution, 3100-475 B.C. (1966); Battersby, Martin, et al., The History of Furniture (1976); Bavaro, Joseph, and Mossman, Thomas L., The Furniture of Gustave Stickley (1990); Boger, Louise A., Complete Guide to Furniture Styles (1969; repr. 1982) and Furniture Past and Present (1966); Cheneviere, Antoine, Russian Furniture: The Golden Age 1780-1840 (1988); Comstock, Helen, American Furniture, 17th, 18th, and 19th Century Styles (1980); Eidelberg, Martin, ed., Design 1935-1965: What Modern Was (1991); Gloag, John, A Short Dictionary of Furniture (1965); Grant, Jerry V., and Allen, Douglas R., Shaker Furniture Makers (1989); Hayward, Helena, ed., World Furniture (1965); Hinckley, F., Lewis, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and Regency Furniture (1987); Joyce, Ernest, Encyclopedia of Furniture Making (1989); Ketchum, W.C., Jr., Furniture Two: Newclassic to the Present (1981); Lucie-Smith, Edward, Furniture (1985); Mang, Karl, History of Modern Furniture (1979); McClinton, Katharine, An Outline of Period Furniture (1972); Payne, C., ed., Sotheby's Concise Encyclopedia of Furniture (1989); Philip, Peter, and Atterbury P., World Furniture (1980); Sembach, K.J., Contemporary Furniture (1987); Smith, Nancy A., Old Furniture: Understanding the Craftsman's Art (1975); Stimpson, Miriam, Modern Furniture Classics (1987); Vandal, Norman, Queen Anne Furniture (1990). \Tfurniture\t \Lmanufactur\le: Bennington, R.R., Furniture Marketing (1984); Joyce, Ernest, Encyclopedia of Furniture Making, rev. ed. (1987); Oliver, John L., The Development and Structure of the Furniture Industry (1966); Skinner, Wickham, et al., Manufacturing Policy in the Furniture Industry, 3d ed. (1968). See also: \Tantique collecting\t; \Tindustrial design\t; \Tinterior design\t.