A flag is a piece of colored fabric that serves as a symbol or a signaling device. Some flags are used only for decoration, but those are rare. Basically, flags are messages from a person or a group of people. This may be seen in everyday phrases such as "show the flag," that is, display the military power of a country without actually threatening to use it; "run it up the pole and see who salutes it," that is, express an idea in a clear graphic form in order to elicit reactions to it; and "win the pennant," that is, be highly successful in a competitive endeavor. Flags express numerous kinds of messages--protection, victory, challenge, submission, pride, honor, threat, loyalty, and hope. Patriots express their love of country by hoisting flags; victorious armies humiliate their enemies by displaying captured flags; dictators use flags to help mold public opinion; and activists challenge the government by flaunting outlawed banners. Ships fly flags both for identification (by nation, shipping line, or both) and for \Tsignaling\t. As a form of political expression, flags are closely related to other symbols. Official seals and coats of arms authenticate the acts of governments; armbands and uniforms unite demonstrators in their common cause; emblems such as the American eagle, the hammer and sickle of Soviet Communism, or the swastika of Nazism appear on posters, ballots, and lapel pins. Groups of all sizes--even private individuals--may have flags that serve to state and affirm their beliefs in the face of opposing beliefs. The most important flags of the modern era are those that identify the nation-state. Flags are normally of cloth or other flexible material and are made in such a way as to be displayed, temporarily or permanently, from a rigid staff. Today, flags are usually made of cotton, wool, or synthetic fabrics; however, they are sometimes metal, plastic, or paper. Formerly, flags were made of silk or linen. The size of a flag depends on its intended use. For example, small ones are used as table decorations, and the largest flag in regular use, in Brazil, is 70 by 100 m (more than 200 by 300 ft). Military flags of today, carried only in ceremonies and parades, are much smaller than the flags of centuries past used for rallying troops and giving directions in the midst of combat. The importance of a flag lies in its symbolism rather than in its material or size; its color and design are the basis for expressing that symbolism. Although all colors may be and have been used, most nonmilitary flags use one or more of six colors--red, yellow, blue, green, black, and white. Designs are of every imaginable form, from the solid red of revolution to intricate painted or embroidered patterns incorporating hundreds of individual elements; but the majority of flags are simple. For ready identification, especially at sea or at a great distance, the following basic geometric patterns are popular: an emblem centered on a plain field, with or without a border; quartered or crosswise divisions; a plain field with a distinctive rectangular area in the upper hoist area (known as the canton); and vertical or horizontal stripes. Combinations of these patterns are also used. A specialized vocabulary has developed to describe the parts and the uses of flags. Some societies emphasize flags and have elaborate rituals surrounding them; others consider flags casually or even largely ignore them. The study of all aspects of flag design, history, symbolism, etiquette, terminology, and development is known as vexillology (from the Latin vexillum, meaning "flag"). ORIGIN The date of the earliest flag is not known. Apparently the first vexilloids (flaglike objects) came into use when people began to live in cities and to organize regular military forces. Archaeological records from the ancient Middle East, Egypt, China, and America suggest that the use of flags was nearly universal among early civilizations. These earliest flags frequently consisted of a carved emblem at the top of a pole, sometimes with ribbons attached below. Natural subjects, especially wild animals, were felt to be appropriate symbols and indeed are still found in modern heraldry--from the lions in the royal standard of Britain to the bison on the state flag of Wyoming. Very early the practical uses of flags became evident; they could identify the rank of a commander, indicate tactical directions on the battlefield, signal the intentions of a ship or its place of registration, or inspire men and women undertaking difficult and dangerous tasks. The use of cloth flags attached along the side of a pole may have been a Chinese invention, since woven silk was developed very early in the Far East. The beginnings of modern flag design, that is, the combination of colors and forms on cloth to transmit certain ideas, may be seen in the development of \Theraldry\t during the 12th century in Europe and slightly later in Japan. Heraldry was the design of coats of arms to distinguish individuals, families, and institutions. Although not all flags are heraldic, many of the rules that developed in European heraldry furnish the basis for the most expressive flags. Preference was given to designs of two or three colors, with a single emblem set against a plain or simply divided background. Colors had to be contrasting for easy visibility. As the heraldic tradition developed, more or less consistent meanings were recorded to prevent their being used by more than one person or group. One of the most important developments in flag history has been the proliferation of national flags, which began in the late 18th century and still continues. The American and French revolutions of 1775 and 1789, respectively, associated specific designs and colors with the concepts of liberty, independence, democracy, nationalism, and political mobilization of the masses. Since then, most of the great multinational empires have vanished. The organization of the world on the basis of countries characterized by a single nationality and national ideology has spread successively to Europe, Latin America, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. The royal standard of a monarch representing many different peoples has given way to the national flag of a distinctive people with its own language, culture, territory, and aspirations. FLAG SYMBOLISM The \TUnion Jack\t of the United Kingdom combines the crosses of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick, the patron saints of England, Scotland, and Ireland, respectively. The five points of the star in the national flag of Somalia represent a claim to the five territories in which the Somalis live. The yellow-blue-red flag of Venezuela symbolizes the wealth of the New World (yellow) separated from Spain (red) by the blue ocean. The red of revolution and communism serves as the background for the national flag of China, and its five gold stars reflect not only the old Chinese imperial color but the importance the Chinese have traditionally assigned to the symbolism of five. When Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in the 1930s, he replaced the black-red-gold of German liberal democracy with the black-white-red "blood and iron" flag of the 19th-century German Empire. Later he substituted the swastika banner of his own Nazi party. Different as the national flags of the world are, major patterns can be discerned in the ways they are used, in the symbolism of their designs and colors, and even in their origins. For example, those who struggled against Spanish rule in Latin America achieved one of their early successes in Argentina. The blue-white-blue flag adopted by that country (then called the United Provinces of La Plata) in 1816 was also flown by privateers who harassed Spanish ports and ships along the coasts of South and Central America. The same flag was adopted by the leaders of Central America after Spanish rule was thrown off in 1821. As individual republics emerged from the Central American federation (1825-38), they modified the flag but still retained its basic colors. The Revolutions of 1848 in Europe inspired Costa Rica to add a stripe of red through the center of the blue-white-blue; Guatemala changed to vertical stripes; and Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador added distinctive emblems on the central white stripe. The struggle of the Arab countries for independence and unity is also reflected in their flags. The first national flag (1947-51) of Cyrenaica was that of the conservative Sanusi religious sect; it was black with a white star and a crescent in the center. Stripes of red and green, symbolizing the Fezzan and Tripolitania, were added when they joined Cyrenaica as the independent country of Libya in 1951. A revolution in 1969 replaced the monarchy and its conservative policies; the flag was altered to red-white-black, the recognized "Arab liberation colors." In 1971, Libya joined Egypt and Syria in the Confederation of Arab Republics and added its emblem, the gold hawk of the tribe of Quraysh, to the center stripe. In 1977, infuriated by attempts of the Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat to negotiate peace with Israel, Libya again changed its flag. It chose a field of plain green, the fourth traditional Islamic color. FLAGS OF THE UNITED STATES In the United States, cities, counties, states, military units, businesses, churches, scout organizations, labor groups, political parties, private yachtsmen, and many others have distinctive flags. The histories of the flags of Hawaii, Texas, and South Carolina would require entire books to recount. Surprisingly, the origins of the national flag, the Stars and Stripes, are somewhat obscure. The flag was officially adopted on June 14, 1777, when the Continental Congress resolved that "the Flag of the united states be 13 stripes alternate red and white, that the Union be 13 stars white in a blue field representing a new constellation." Its immediate predecessor, the Continental Colors, had consisted of 13 horizontal red and white stripes for the 13 colonies represented in the Continental Congress, with the British Union Jack as a canton to indicate that the rebels were demanding the historic rights of British citizens. How and why stars were chosen to replace the Union Jack is not known. Stars were uncommon in flags in that era, although the American example has since made them popular. The colors red, white, and blue were clearly derived from British sources; many English flags had red and white stripes. Americans at the time of the national centennial in 1876 warmed to the popular story about the young seamstress Betsy \TRoss\t, who supposedly sewed the first flag for George Washington. Although according to historical records she did indeed make flags, no evidence indicates that she was involved in making or designing the first Stars and Stripes, and the validity of the traditional story is doubtful. After Vermont and Kentucky joined the Union, 2 stars and 2 stripes were added (1795) to the flag. Such a 15-star, 15-stripe flag--now preserved in the Smithsonian Institution--inspired Francis Scott \Tkey\t to write "The Star-Spangled Banner." The design of the flag was changed again in 1818, when the decision was made to keep the 13 stripes permanently and add stars to indicate the current number of states in the Union. Altogether the Stars and Stripes has been through 27 versions, the most recent introduced on July 4, 1960, when Hawaii was admitted to statehood. Until 1912 no official pattern existed for the arrangement of the stars. Flags of the 19th century varied greatly in their star patterns, in the number of points on the stars, in the shades of red and blue, in the width-to-length ratio of the flag, and in other details. Design and color were first standardized in the 20th century. ETIQUETTE OF THE FLAG Traditionally flags have been respected, and rules have governed their display. During the 20th century, however, flag etiquette has received particular attention, especially in the United States and other countries where the flag is a primary focus of patriotism. In the United States the anniversary of the flag's adoption (June 14) has been celebrated as Flag Day since 1916; it is a legal holiday in Pennsylvania. In 1942 the U.S. Congress adopted a Flag Code, subsequently amended, setting forth uniform procedures for displaying the flag in a respectful manner. The two most important guides are tradition and common sense. For example, the U.S. flag had traditionally been flown only during daytime, but since the activities of the nation go on 24 hours a day, and because raising and lowering the flag every day is expensive, in recent years it has become common to fly the flag at night. Courtesy and common sense suggest that a flag should be spotlighted at night, which the revised code recommends. Likewise, because of improved manufacturing techniques, flags can now withstand moisture and need not be lowered in harsh weather. In the United States when the U.S. flag is hoisted with other flags, it should take precedence; the way in which this status is achieved depends on the circumstances. For example, international custom dictates that the flag of one nation should not be displayed above that of another nation; nor should the flag of one nation be larger than that of another when they are raised together. When the flag of the United States is displayed with other national flags within the United States, therefore, its precedence is established by its being placed at the head of the line of flags or to its own extreme right. It is also placed to the right when flown with flags of states, military officers, and companies, but then it may also be larger and flown higher. The Flag Code includes rules for displaying the flag at half staff to mourn the dead and for displaying the flag on special holidays, in parades, with the flag of the United Nations, in meeting halls, and in other similar circumstances. The following is the official salute to the flag: "I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." A number of legal battles have been waged over the so-called desecration of the flag. For example, members of the Jehovah's Witness religious sect refuse on principle to salute the flag, and they have been prosecuted for it. Political protesters, such as those opposed to the Vietnam War in the 1960s, have tried to dramatize their cause by burning the flag or otherwise defacing it. In the late 1980s the issue found its way to the Supreme Court, which ruled that a protester, who had burned the flag at the 1988 Republican National Convention, was merely expressing free speech. The Court later ruled that a congressional law protecting the flag from desecration was unconstitutional. The symbolism of flags has caused emotions to run high in other countries. Canadians debated for several decades whether the nation should have a distinctive flag and, if so, what its design should be. The debate subsided only gradually after the present national flag was adopted in 1965. A similar discussion took place in South Africa in the 1920s. In South Vietnam in the early 1960s, the refusal of President Ngo Dinh Diem to allow the display of Buddhist flags was a political decision that contributed to his overthrow and assassination. Elsewhere flags have been potent emblems of revolutionary movements and of authoritarian political parties. Their potential for expressing deep-felt emotions in a condensed but obvious form, and with great public visibility, has made flags an important medium of political communication in the 20th century. Whitney Smith Bibliography: Barraclough, E. M., Flags of the World, rev. ed. (1982); Flag Research Center, The Flag Bulletin (bimonthly); Furlong, William R., and McCandless, Byron, So Proudly We Hail: The History of the United States Flag (1981); Mastai, Boleslaw and Marie Louis d'Otrange, The Stars and Stripes (1973); Quaife, Milo M., The History of the United States Flag (1961); Shearer, B.F. and B.S., State Names, Seals, Flags, and Symbols (1987); Smith, Whitney, The Flag Book of the United States (1976), Flags through the Ages and across the World (1975), and Guide to the Flags of the World (1982).