Albania, one of Europe's smallest countries, is situated in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. It has a 360-km (225-mi) coastline on the Adriatic and Ionian seas and is bounded on the north and east by Yugoslavia and on the southeast by Greece. The Albanians' name for their country, Shqiperi, which means "eagles' land," aptly suggests Albania's isolated, rugged terrain and its strongly independent people. In 1990, after four decades of rigid Communist rule, Albania began the difficult process of moving from a one-party regime to a multiparty democracy, and from a centrally controlled economy to a free-market system. LAND Albania is a predominantly mountainous country; approximately three-fourths of its territory consists of highlands with elevations greater than 300 m (1,000 ft). The mountains, which form a generally north-south backbone, are a southern continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The North Albanian Alps, a glaciated limestone range in the extreme north, are among the most rugged and inaccessible regions in the country. The highest peak, Korab (2,751 m/9,025 ft), is located on the eastern border with Yugoslavia. Much of the population inhabits the elevated basins and plateaus of the central part of the country. Along the coast is a narrow zone of generally fertile alluvial lowlands (with some marshes) that extend inland along some rivers, especially in the central coastal region. Most of the rivers in Albania rise in the interior highlands and flow generally westward, descending rapidly to the coast, many in narrow gorges. The longest river is the Drin, but except for the Buene none of the rivers is navigable. Most are nearly dry in summer and become torrents in winter. The major lakes (all of which are divided by Albania's borders) are Ohrid, Shkoder, and Prespa. Climate The coastal lowlands enjoy a typically Mediterranean climate: hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. At \TDurres\t, nearly 80% of the annual rainfall occurs between October and March, and the average daily minimum temperature in January is 6 deg C (42 deg F). The interior highlands are under the influence of a continental climate and have severely cold winters and warm summers, although at the highest elevations summers are cool. Annual rainfall averages from 760 mm (30 in) in the southeastern highlands to 2,030 mm (80 in) in the northern coastal plain to 1,070 mm (42 in) at Durres. Resources Albania is relatively rich in minerals and is the world's fourth leading producer of chrome. Also present are significant deposits of oil, natural gas, bitumen, copper, iron, nickel, and salt. The country's river systems, especially the Drin, are important sources of hydroelectric power. Forests of oak, chestnut, beech, pine, and fir adequately supply the needs of Albania's woodworking and paper industries. PEOPLE For a Balkan state, Albania has an unusually homogeneous ethnic composition, with Albanians comprising 96% of the population. They are believed to be descendants of the ancient Illyrians, who were among the earliest inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula. Despite centuries of foreign domination, the Albanians managed to preserve their national identity and language. The Albanians comprise two major subgroups: the Ghegs (or Gegs) to the north of the Shkumbi River and the Tosks to the south. The cultural and religious differences between the two groups have been largely eliminated by the current regime. Linguistic differences remain; however, the two dialects are mutually intelligible. The official language is based largely on the Tosk dialect, reflecting the fact that Albania's Communist leader Enver Hoxha came from the southern part of the country. From 1967 until 1990 all religious institutions were closed by the government. Before 1967, approximately 70% of the population were Muslim (the result of centuries of Turkish rule), 20% were Orthodox Christians, and 10% were Roman Catholic. Government figures now designate 55% of the people as nonreligious. Demography Albania has the highest rate of natural population increase in Europe. Its birthrate, also higher than that of any other European nation, is closer to that of a Third World country. The urban population, although small by European standards, has more than doubled since 1940, when only 15% of the people lived in cities. Major cities include \TTirane\t, the capital, \TDurres\t (Durazzo), \TShkoder\t (Scutari), Elbasan, \TVlore\t, and Korce (Koritza), none of which, except the capital, has a population greater than 100,000. Education and Health Eight years of primary education (from ages 6 to 14) are free and compulsory in Albania. Secondary education consists of four-year technical or professional courses. Secondary school students normally spend part of their time working on farms and in factories, or in military training. Higher education is offered by Enver Hoxha University in Tirane (founded in 1957), three teacher training schools, and two agricultural colleges. Fees are charged by higher educational institutions in accordance with the students' ability to pay. Illiteracy, widespread before World War II, has been virtually eliminated in the adult population. Albania has about 800 hospitals and more than 3,000 outpatient clinics serving all parts of the country. Medical care is free, and medication is supplied free of charge for children up to one year of age. Cultural Activity Albanian literature, which first appeared in the 15th and 16th centuries, remained primarily religious in character until the 19th century. Ottoman political authorities and the Greek Orthodox patriarch collaborated to discourage the use of the Albanian language and the development of Albanian culture. By the 19th century, however, a number of writers had established a secular literature with nationalistic themes. Albanian literature and culture began to flourish after the achievement of independence in 1912. After 1945, cultural activity was subjected to rigid ideological controls; consequently, with the exception of folk music, the folk arts, and a few literary works, Albanian culture attracted little foreign interest. In the 1960s, Albania experienced a \TCultural Revolution\t similar to that of China, and Western works of art were thrown into official disfavor. All this began to change with the disintegration of the Communist system in the 1990s. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Although Albania's Communist rulers sought to transform the country into a modern, self-sufficient industrial and agricultural state, Albania remains the least economically developed country in Europe. Agriculture In 1989 agriculture accounted for about one-third of the national income. Under the Communists, all land was state owned and operated, either as state farms or cooperatives. When the government began to dismantle this system in 1991, the distribution network broke down, and a severe food shortage resulted. Industry Industry in Albania has concentrated on the processing of mineral resources, especially chrome and petroleum. Hydroelectric power is also being developed for export to neighboring countries. The upheaval of the early 1990s, however, caused a crisis in the state-run industrial sector, and the government appealed to the European Community for aid to prevent its collapse. GOVERNMENT Under the leadership of Communist party chief Enver \THoxha\t, who dominated Albania from 1944 until his death in 1985, the government was a tightly controlled dictatorship. Hoxha's system remained intact until 1990, when his successor, Ramiz Alia, began to introduce reforms. In multiparty elections held in March 1991 the Communists won 68% of the vote; in June a coalition prime government was installed under a reformist prime minister, Ylli Bufi. Alia continued as president. Bans on religion and foreign travel were ended, and a new democratic constitution was adopted. The caretaker coalition collapsed early in December, and President Ramiz Alia named Vilson Ahmeti premier. HISTORY From the 7th century BC the Greeks colonized the coastal areas of what is now Albania and in the following centuries became a cultural influence on the Illyrians. In about 350 BC an independent kingdom, \TIllyria\t, emerged in the region near Shkoder. Illyria and \TEpirus\t to the south were conquered by Rome in 168 BC. With the division of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD, Albania came under Byzantine rule. Actual Byzantine power in the area was weak, however, and in the succeeding centuries Albania was overrun by the Goths, Bulgars, Slavs, Serbs, and Normans (see \TBalkans\t). In the early 15th century the Turks began their conquest of the region. In 1443 Albanian resistance to the Turks was organized under the leadership of \TSkanderbeg\t, who has become glorified as the national hero. Skanderbeg expelled the Turks and kept Albania independent of Turkish rule for more than 20 years. Soon after his death in 1468, however, the Turks reasserted their power, and Albania became part of the \TOttoman Empire\t. During the nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule most Albanians converted to Islam, and a substantial number immigrated to other Mediterranean regions. The country remained undeveloped and neglected. Albanian nationalism revived in the early 19th century and spurred repeated revolts against Turkish domination. In 1912, in the First Balkan War, the Turks were driven from much of the Balkan Peninsula, and Albania declared its independence (see \TBalkan Wars\t). During World War I, Albania was a battleground for other Balkan powers and Italy. Albania's sovereignty was upheld at the Paris Peace Conference (1919) through the efforts of the American president Woodrow Wilson. After a period of political instability, power was seized (1925) by Ahmed Zogu, a conservative northern tribal chief. In 1928 he proclaimed Albania a monarchy and became King \TZog\t. During his reign, Zog began the modernization of the country with Italian aid. Italian financial and military influence increased, and in 1939 Italy invaded Albania, forcing the king into exile. During World War II a power struggle developed between the Communist (National Liberation Front) and the non-Communist liberation forces. After the Germans withdrew in 1944, a provisional Communist government was established. Between 1944 and 1948 Albania allied itself with Yugoslavia. In 1948, after the rift in Yugoslav-Soviet relations, Albania allied itself with the \TUSSR\t. Relations between the two countries grew strained in the late 1950s as Stalinist policies were discredited by Nikita Khrushchev; Hoxha, first secretary of the Albanian Communist party, remained a firm Stalinist. In 1961, Albania and the \TUSSR\t severed diplomatic relations, and Soviet aid to the country was ended. Albania turned to China as an economic and ideological ally. China supplied military and economic aid needed to offset Albania's chronic trade deficit. Following Mao Tse-tung's death, however, Albania became increasingly critical of China's "revisionist" leadership. After a dispute with Chinese leaders in 1978, Albania was completely isolated. Following Enver Hoxha's death in 1985, the new party chief, Ramiz Alia, took cautious steps toward reestablishing diplomatic and trade contacts with his European neighbors. At the same time, relations with Yugoslavia were troubled by the question of equal rights for the ethnic Albanian minority in that country. Albania resisted the wave of liberalization that swept across Communist Eastern Europe in 1989, but in 1990 the government responded to the pressure for change by ending the ban on religion and permitting its citizens to travel abroad. Student riots in Tirane on Dec. 9, 1990, led to concessions from the government, including a commitment to allow opposition political parties. Two days later, the Democratic party, Albania's first opposition party since 1946, announced its formation in a large rally in the capital. Demonstrations and rioting broke out in the cities of Shkoder, Kavaje, Durres, and elsewhere in mid-December. The government formally recognized independent political parties late in December, but continued repressive measures against anyone involved in the recent riots. A government order in late December 1990 to remove all statues of Joseph Stalin symbolized Albania's evolution away from its Stalinist past. On Jan. 1, 1991, Albanian president Ramiz Alia promised that elections in the spring would be "completely free and democratic, pluralist and secret." In mid-March, the government announced that all political prisoners in the country would be free. Thousands of Albanians, however, continued to leave the country, traveling overland to Greece or by boat to Italy. On March 15, Albania and the United States restored full diplomatic relations after a gap of 52 years. In the first multiparty elections held since World War II, the ruling Albanian Workers' (Communist) party retained power, and in the run-off elections of April 7, held 168 seats in the 250-seat assembly. The Democratic party held 75 seats. Reports of irregularities in the election process led to criticism from abroad and to unrest within the country. On April 1991, a widespread wave of strikes, street demonstrations, and economic disorder led to the resignation of the newly-elected Communist government. In June, parliament approved Albania's first non-Communist government since World War II. The Communist party (Party of Labor) officially changed its name to the Socialist party. Opposition parties were permitted to join the government in June, and new elections were promised for 1992. Meanwhile, more than 20,000 Albanians sought asylum in Italy in the early months of 1991. During the summer thousands more fled in boats across the Adriatic Sea, where they were turned back by Italian authorities. Others demanding to be allowed to emigrate occupied foreign embassies in Tirane. Nicholas C. Pano Bibliography: Hetzer, Armin, and Roman, Viorel S., Albania (1983); Logoreci, Anton, The Albanians (1977); Marmullaku, Ramadan, Albania and the Albanians (1975); Pano, Nicholas C., Albania (1989); Pollo, Stefanaq, and Puto, Arben, History of Albania (1980); Prifti, Peter R., Socialist Albania Since 1944 (1978).