Tennessee, a southeastern state, stretches about 770 km (480 mi) from the Appalachian Mountains in the east to the Mississippi River in the west. It is bounded by Kentucky and Virginia on the north; North Carolina on the east; Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi on the south; and Arkansas and Missouri on the west. Tennessee was named for the great river that cuts through the state, although the meaning of the word Tennessee is unknown. From its rough frontier origins Tennessee played an important role in the nation's history even before statehood in 1796. Tennessee gained its nickname, The Volunteer State, from the large numbers of soldiers it sent to the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Mexican War, and the Civil War. Today Tennessee is a prosperous state, with much industrial and agricultural potential. LAND AND RESOURCES The state's land surface rolls and tumbles under a variety of climates and vegetation, which mark the three traditional divisions of its territory into East, Middle, and West Tennessee. East Tennessee extends from the \TGreat Smoky Mountains\t across a series of elongated ridges and valleys into the \TCumberland Plateau\t. In Middle Tennessee the Nashville Basin is rimmed by a heavily carved upland, and West Tennessee contains the Coastal Plain and the Mississippi Bottoms. The physical environment is extremely varied. The Great Smoky Mountains rise to elevations exceeding 1,830 m (6,000 ft), and the range is among the oldest on Earth. Clingmans Dome at 2,025 m (6,643 ft), the highest point in Tennessee, is the second highest point east of the Mississippi River. Eastward from the mountains the Ridge and Valley Province consists of layers of limestone, sandstone, dolomite, and shale, which were crumpled into elongated mountains 400 to 350 million years ago. The mountains' erosional remnants are the present northeast-southwest trending ridges and intervening valleys. The ridges reach 799 m (2,620 ft) in elevation, and the valleys descend to 195 m (640 ft). Westward of the Ridge and Valley, the Cumberland Plateau varies in width from 80 to 113 km (50 to 70 mi) and in height from 610 to 1,067 m (2,000 to 3,500 ft). Its limestone and sandstone rocks have been deeply cut by streams, and most of the surface is steeply sloped. A spectacular entrenchment about 7 km (4.5 mi) wide and 113 to 129 km (70 to 80 mi) long called the Sequatchie valley occupies the southeastern margin of the plateau. The plateau drops off sharply to the west into the Nashville Basin. The basin, a rolling, rocky, oval-shaped lowland, averages about 183 m (600 ft) in elevation. It extends approximately 129 km (80 mi) north-south and 80 km (50 mi) east-west. It is surrounded by the Highland Rim, which, with the basin, was eroded from the plateau surface. The Highland Rim stands about 61 to 122 m (200 to 400 ft) higher than the basin and is 32 to 97 km (20 to 60 mi) wide. Most of the surface is gently to steeply sloping. Farther west is the coastal lowland of West Tennessee. The rocks there are younger, and the surface more level, than any other region in the state. In the northwestern part of Tennessee is Reelfoot Lake, a shallow water body created in 1811-12 by the New Madrid earthquake. Soils Most of Tennessee's soils are thin and rocky, with deeper deposits occurring in the plains of West Tennessee and in eastern valleys. The steeply sloping areas are subject to heavy erosion and have low natural fertility. Near the Mississippi River are thick deposits of loess. Climate Tennessee's climate is transitional between the long, hot summers and mild winters farther south and the more severe winters and shorter summers of the Middle West. January temperatures normally average 5 deg C (41 deg F) in the west and 3 deg C (37 deg F) in the east. July temperatures average 26 deg C (79 deg F) in the west and 22 deg C (71 deg F) in the east. The eastern mountains receive more precipitation (1,270-1,525 mm/50-60 in) than any part of the continental United States except the Pacific Northwest. Statewide precipitation averages 1,270 mm (50 in). Rivers and Lakes Drainage in much of the state is partially below the surface, because the limestone rock layers are easily soluble and pocketed with underground caverns. The \TTennessee River\t and the \TCumberland River\t both make wide loops from Kentucky into Tennessee and back again, emptying into the Ohio River. The rivers of West Tennessee drain directly into the \TMississippi River\t. Vegetation and Resources About half of Tennessee is forested. East Tennessee contains a mix of hardwoods and softwoods, whereas most other areas are dominated by hardwoods. Cedar trees are prominent in the Nashville Basin. The once-abundant wildlife is now strictly protected. Stone, coal, zinc, sand, gravel, phosphate rock, copper, and clays are the leading minerals by value. Barite, sulfur, and lime are also important, but water is Tennessee's most highly developed resource. The \TTennessee Valley Authority\t changed the Tennessee River and its major tributaries from flood-prone streams into a series of quiet reservoirs behind concrete and steel dams. PEOPLE Tennessee's overall population density is about 46 persons per sq km (119 per sq mi), and about two-thirds of the population are urban. \TNashville\t-Davidson is the capital, and \TMemphis\t is the state's largest city. Other major cities are \TKnoxville\t and \TChattanooga\t. Although Tennessee has traditionally been a state of high birthrates and substantial out-migration, that trend has been reversed since 1973. More people migrate into than out of the state. Birth and death rates are slightly higher than the national average. Blacks account for 16% of the population (1990), with heaviest concentrations in the greater Memphis area. Most Tennesseans are predominantly of German, English, or Italian extraction. The religious denomination with the largest membership is the Baptist church, followed by the Churches of Christ, Methodist and Presbyterian churches, and Church of the Nazarene. Education A statewide tax-supported school system was established in Tennessee in 1873. Not until 1909, however, was the program effectively funded. Prior to 1873, education was provided by privately owned schools, usually controlled by churches. The public school system is administered by a commissioner of education, appointed by the governor to a four-year term, who heads the state department of education and makes recommendations to a 10-member state board of education. Institutions of higher education include numerous public and private colleges and universities. The University of Tennessee and its various branches (see \TTennessee, state universities of\t) operate under a single board of trustees. Other state universities and community colleges operate under a Board of Regents. The Tennessee Higher Education Commission coordinates all higher education in the state. Prominent private universities are \TVanderbilt University\t in Nashville and the University of the South (see \TSouth, University of the\t) in Sewanee. The largest book collection in Tennessee is housed in the Joint Universities Libraries (a pooling of collections from Vanderbilt University, Peabody College, and Scarritt College) in Nashville. The second largest collection is that of the University of Tennessee Libraries in Knoxville. The state's public libraries house several million volumes. Cultural Attractions and Historic Sites Tennessee's state museum is housed in the War Memorial Building in Nashville. The Atomic Energy Museum in Oak Ridge contains a major collection of technology, and smaller museums are found in nearly every city. Live theater is presented at the universities and in most large towns. Nashville, home of the \TGrand Ole Opry\t, is the nation's center for country and western music. The Parthenon in Nashville is an exact replica of the Greek Parthenon in Athens and was built in 1897 for the Tennessee Centennial. The Hermitage (Andrew Jackson's home near Nashville), the Andrew Johnson National Monument near Greeneville, the several Civil War battlefields at Lookout Mountain, Shiloh, Chickamauga, and Murfreesboro, and the \TCumberland Gap\t National Historical Park are among the major historical sites. Knoxville's Blount Mansion (1792) and the Memphis home of Elvis Presley are also favorite attractions for visitors. Great Smoky Mountains National Park draws millions of visitors each year. Pinson Mounds, near Jackson, has outstanding archaeological sites and the remains of an Indian city. The state also maintains state parks and recreation areas. Communications Tennessee has a number of daily newspapers. The Memphis Commercial Appeal has the largest circulation, followed by the Nashville Tennessean. Numerous periodicals are also published in the state. Commercial broadcasting is conducted through many radio and television stations. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY From its agricultural beginnings, Tennessee has become increasingly industrialized. As the economy diversifies, median incomes and standards of living rise, although the per capita income has remained below the national average. Manufacturing A significant percentage of the state's labor force is employed in manufacturing, which accounts for about one-quarter of the gross state product. The major industries are those producing chemicals, electrical equipment, processed foods, nonelectrical machinery, fabricated metals, transportation equipment, rubber and plastic products, furniture, and textiles. Manufacturing centers are in Memphis, Nashville, Knoxville, and Chattanooga. Agriculture Tennessee's best agricultural lands are in the coastal lowlands near the Mississippi River where the surface is level and soils are relatively deep and fertile. Agriculture today employs only a small percentage of the state's labor force. Farm sizes average only about 55 ha (135 acres), compared to the national average of 184 ha (455 acres). Livestock products account for about half of all farm income, and cattle is the leading commodity. Tennessee is also a leading dairy state in the south. The major crops are soybeans, tobacco, cotton, and corn. Horses are also raised, primarily in Middle and West Tennessee. Mining, Forestry, and Fishing Tennessee's major mineral resources are bituminous coal, stone, and zinc. Tennessee ranks first among the U. S. states in the production of zinc. The state's commercial timber is 90% privately owned. Commercial fishing is of negligible importance, but sport fishing is popular. Energy The giant Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), an agency of the federal government, is the nation's largest power-generation system and generates almost all of Tennessee's electrical power. Most of that power is generated from coal-burning plants; the remainder comes from hydroelectric plants. Transportation Memphis, Nashville, and Knoxville are major junction points for the Interstate highway network, as well as rail-, water-, and air-transportation centers. The Mississippi River forms Tennessee's western border and is a major navigational route, as is the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, linking Tennessee rivers with ports on the Gulf of Mexico. Memphis International Airport is the state's major air terminal. GOVERNMENT Government in Tennessee operates under a constitution adopted in 1870 and amended several times. The governor is elected to a 4-year term and may serve only two consecutive terms. The General Assembly consists of a house of representatives with 99 members elected to 2-year terms and a senate with 33 members elected to 4-year terms. Each of Tennessee's 95 counties is governed by a county court composed of a county judge and several magistrates. The 5 Supreme Court justices, although theoretically elected, usually serve until death or retirement. Most cities and towns have a mayor-council form of government. Some cities have opted for home rule rather than being under the state legislature. A metropolitan government has been adopted by Nashville-Davidson County. Tennessee has always been divided politically--as well as socially and economically--between east and west. East Tennessee is a Republican bastion, and West and Middle Tennessee are strongly Democratic. From Reconstruction through the mid-1960s, Republicans usually won statewide elections only when their Democratic rivals were split over an issue. Since the mid-1960s, however, this pattern has begun to change. Republicans are regularly elected to some of the 9 congressional seats. Sen. Howard H. \TBaker\t, Jr., served as the U.S. Senate majority (Republican) leader from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. Three Tennesseans have served as U.S. president: Andrew \TJackson\t, James K. \TPolk\t, and Andrew \TJohnson\t. HISTORY The earliest-known inhabitants of Tennessee were \TMound Builders\t, and when Europeans penetrated the area they found that these Indian groups were still present. The Spanish explorer Hernando \Tde Soto\t was the first European to enter what is now Tennessee. He crossed the state and discovered (1541) the Mississippi River near present-day Memphis. At that time the \TCherokee\t Indians inhabited East Tennessee; the \TShawnee\t, Middle Tennessee--apparently on Cherokee sufferance; and the \TChickasaw\t, West Tennessee. The Chickasaw did not cede West Tennessee until 1818. Both France and England claimed parts of the territory during the 17th and 18th centuries, but in 1763 the French relinquished all lands east of the Mississippi to England, and permanent European settlement began. In 1772 the settlers in a few isolated centers organized themselves into the \TWatauga Association\t for protection and administration of justice. Two leaders of this association were John \TSevier\t and James \TRobertson\t, who founded (1779) a community near present-day Nashville. The Tennessee pioneers joined in the American Revolution, and forces led by Sevier and Isaac \TShelby\t were instrumental in winning the important Battle of Kings Mountain (Oct. 7, 1780). The victory prevented the joining of two British forces and hastened the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. Following the Revolution and numerous skirmishes with the Cherokees for control of the territory, the State of \TFranklin\t was formed (1784) in eastern Tennessee out of land ceded by North Carolina to the federal government. North Carolina refused to recognize the new state, however, and Sevier, Franklin's governor, was arrested in 1788 and the new state collapsed. North Carolina again ceded its western territory in 1789, and President Washington commissioned (1790) William \TBlount\t governor of all U.S. territory south of the Ohio River. On June 1, 1796, Tennessee became the 16th state; Sevier was its first governor. In the War of 1812, Tennessee supplied 28,000 troops and had more soldiers than any other state in the Battle of New Orleans, won by native son Andrew \TJackson\t. Tennessee furnished most of the men and the commanders for the ensuing Indian wars east of the Mississippi. Among the state's famous Volunteers were Davy \TCrockett\t, who died at the Alamo, and Gen. Sam \THouston\t, who became the first president of the Republic of Texas. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Tennessee was torn between the nearly unanimous support of the Union in the abolitionist east and equally strong support of the Confederacy in the slave-holding middle and west. As a result Tennessee was the last Southern state to secede. Because of its position as a border state, more battles of the Civil War were fought on Tennessee territory than any other state except Virginia. After the Union victories at Fort Donelson and Fort Pillow, Tennessee was placed under military rule, with Andrew \TJohnson\t as military governor. After the war Tennessee was the first Confederate state to be readmitted to the Union, but Reconstruction proved to be a difficult period in the state's history. With the election of Democrat John C. Brown as governor in 1870, Reconstruction ended, and nearly a century of Democratic domination of state politics began. After the Civil War, agriculture made only a slow revival as the state's economic mainstay, and the ongoing process of industrialization began. In addition to the losses of the war, the population of Memphis was nearly wiped out by a yellow fever epidemic in 1878. The tiny town of Dayton became the center of national attention in 1925 when the famous \TScopes Trial\t brought together William Jennings Bryan and Clarence S. Darrow in a bitter lawsuit concerning the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution. The case was a test of a Tennessee statute (1925) prohibiting the teaching of evolution (which offended religious fundamentalists) in the state's public school system. The challenge was unsuccessful, and the law remained on the books until 1967. Tennessean Cordell \THull\t served as secretary of state under President Franklin \TRoosevelt\t and received the Nobel Peace Prize. Estes \TKefauver\t, elected from Tennessee to the U.S. Senate in 1948, became a leader in struggles for civil rights and against organized crime. Desegregation of public schools proceeded slowly but without serious incident in Tennessee. On Apr. 4, 1968, the Rev. Martin Luther \Tking\t, Jr., was assassinated in Memphis. Today Tennessee still has its traditional contrasts between the industrialized east and the more agricultural west. These distinctions are now more a source of strength than conflict, however. During the 1980s in-migration to the state increased. Tennessee also profited in the 1980s and early 1990s from the introduction of Japanese and American motor-vehicle manufacturing in the state. Sidney R. Jumper Bibliography: \Thistory\t: Bergeron, Paul H., Paths of the Past: Tennessee, 1770 to 1970 (1979); Corlew, Robert E., Tennessee (1981); Williams, Samuel C., Tennessee during the Revolutionary War (1975); Weeks, T., and Womack, B., A History of Tennessee, ed. by Sara Sims (1989). \Tland\t AND \TPeople\t: Ash, S.V., Middle Tennessee Society Transformed, 1860-1870 (1987); Clark, Joe, Tennessee Hill Folk (1972); Fullerton, Ralph O., and Ray, John B., Tennessee: Geographical Patterns and Regions (1977); Luther, Edward T., Our Restless Earth: The Geologic Regions of Tennessee (1977); Matthews, Elmora M., Neighbor and Kin: Life in a Tennessee Ridge Community (1966). \LPolitic\ls AND \Tgovernment\t: Abernethy, Thomas P., From Frontier to Plantation in Tennessee (1932; repr. 1979); Greene, Lee S., et al., Government in Tennessee, 4th ed. (1982); Majors, W.R., Change and Continuity (1986).