The Syrian Arab Republic is bordered by Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, and the Mediterranean Sea. This strategic crossroads location and Syria's military power give it an importance within the Middle East that is out of all proportion to its size and economic potential and have involved it in many of the region's key political problems. Syria is a modern state in an ancient land. Although its contemporary boundaries were created by France after World War I, the name Syria has been applied to the larger eastern Mediterranean littoral region for centuries. LAND AND RESOURCES A wide range or landforms and climate conditions are found in Syria although much of the country consists of relatively flat desert. A series of hills and mountain ranges roughly parallel the narrow coastal plain, including the Jebel al-Druze and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, where Mount Heron, the highest point in the country, rises to 2,814 m (9,286 ft). Most of the interior consists of a plateau, across which a line of hills runs from southwest to northeast. In the southeast is the \TSyrian Desert\t. The Mediterranean moderates temperatures along the coastal plain, which experiences warm humid summers and mild damp winters. Temperatures there typically range from 7 deg C (45 deg F) in January to 27 deg C (80 deg F) in August, and normal annual rainfall varies from 750 to 1,000 mm (30 to 40 in). Most of Syria, however, receives less than 250 mm (10 in) of rainfall a year, and a good portion receives less than 100 mm (4 in). Winters in the interior can be cold, especially in the north, where temperatures often fall below freezing. Summers are hot, particularly in the east; daily maximum temperatures exceed 40 deg C (100 deg F) over much of the interior between June and August. Few large rivers originate within Syria; the \TEuphrates\t, al-Khabur, and Balikh have their headwaters in Turkey, and the Orontes rises in Lebanon. Tapping these rivers, particularly the Euphrates, for irrigation has been a priority of Syrian development plans. Fertile soils are found in the north, along the coast, and in the river valleys. Much of the natural vegetation, including the once extensive mountain forests of pine and oak, has been depleted by human activities. Native wildlife includes gazelles, antelopes, deer squirrels, wildcats, hares, and various birds and small desert reptiles. The chief mineral resources are phosphates and petroleum, although Syria is not a major petroleum producer by Middle East standards and has small reserves. PEOPLE Arabic is the mother tongue of 85-90% of the population (see \TArabs\t; \TArabic language\t). \TKurds\t are the largest linguistic minority (9%). There are also small communities of Armenians, Circassians, Turks, and Aramaic-speakers. These minorities are largely bilingual in Arabic, so language divisions do not impede national integration. Religious differences, however, remain politically and socially significant. Although 85% of all Syrians are Muslims, they belong to difference sects. Roughly 70% are \TSunnites\t; the remainder are \TShiites\t, Ismailites (see \TIsmailis\t), Alawites and \TDruzes\t. Since 1963, Alawites have played a prominent political role because of their overrepresentation in the military and the \TBaath party\t. The non-Muslim population is largely Christian, particularly Greek Orthodox, and is concentrated in Damascus and Aleppo. Syria is also host to some 260,000 Palestinian refugees, two-thirds of whom live in Damascus province. The availability of water largely determines where people live. Population densities are highest along the coast between Latakia and Tartus, in a north-south belt that links the cities of \TAleppo\t, \THama\t, \THoms\t, and \TDamascus\t (the capital), and in the river valleys east of Aleppo. Only a few nomadic \LBedouin\ls live in the desert to the south and east. Syria's birthrate remains high but its death rate has fallen. Consequently, the population is growing by almost 4% annually, and some 47% of all Syrians are under the age of 15. Syria's cities are growing even more rapidly because of migration from rural areas. The population is well educated by Middle Eastern standards. Educational facilities at all levels have expanded greatly since the mid-1960s, although illiteracy is still widespread among older rural Syrians and women. Access to health services has improved as a result of government policies to increase the number of physicians and to distribute them more equitably, but a disproportionate share of hospitals and personnel remain concentrated in Damascus. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Agriculture dominated the Syrian economy until recently. Less than one-third of the land is cultivated because of the unfavorable environment. Wheat and barley account for two-thirds of the cultivated area. Cotton, the major cash crop, was the leading export until the mid-1970s. Other crops include vegetables, citrus fruits, olives, tobacco, and sugar beets. Peasants often also herd sheep or goats. Most of Syria's earliest industries processed agricultural products or turned out light consumer goods. in the 1970s the government initiated a policy of rapid industrialization, particularly in such areas as iron and steel, fertilizers, and chemicals and the assembly of such items as refrigerators and television sets. As a result, industrial output has been increasing by more than 10% annually. Petroleum accounts for some 70% of total exports. Because much of Syria's oil is heavy and high in sulfur, it imports light crude oil from Iran for blending in the refineries at Homs and Baniyas, around which a petrochemical industry has developed. Substantial phosphate deposits form the basis of the fertilizer industry. The public sector accounts for three-fifths of the GDP, although the private sector has been encouraged to play an active role in the economy. The Syrian economy suffered severely in the past from a poor transportation system. This is no longer the case. Modern ports have been developed at Latakia and Tartus, obviating the need to use Beirut and Tripoli in Lebanon, and all major cities are now connected by an extensive rail network and modern highways. Rapid industrialization and an ambitious program to electrify the countryside have led to power shortages despite the completion of a large hydroelectric project at the Euphrates Dam in 1978 and a five-fold increase in power production between 1973 and 1984. Syria is nominally socialist and has close political and military ties with the \TUSSR\t, but it obtains most of its non-oil imports from Western Europe and Japan. Romania, Italy, and the \TUSSR\t are the chief export markets. The country consistently has a balance-of-trade deficit. GOVERNMENT According to the 1973 constitution, power is divided between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. In practice, power is highly centralized in the president, who appoints all cabinet ministers; he is also general secretary of the ruling Baath party and commander in chief of the armed forces. Not all members of the elected People's Assembly belong to the Baath party, but there is no real opposition and the assembly lacks independent power. The Baathist regime ultimately depends on military backing. Key collective decisions are made by the regional command of the Baath party or the military high command. Administratively, Syria is divided into thirteen muhafazats (provinces) and the Governorate of Damascus. HISTORY Although the modern Syrian state was not established until after World War I, Syria has been inhabited since ancient times. Recent excavations at \TEbla\t indicate the existence of a large state in the 3d millennium BC that traded with the better-known Nile valley and Mesopotamian civilizations, and artifacts at Tell Leidan in the north date back to 5000 BC. Damascus claims to be the world's oldest continuously settled city. The historic region known as Greater Syria (comprising present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan) was a frequent object of conquest because of its location on the main trade and invasion routes between the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia and southwestern Asia and northeastern Africa. Various Semitic peoples, including Phoenicians, Canaanites, Hebrews, Aramaens, and nomadic tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, settled the region, which was successively ruled by the Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, Persians, and Greeks before being incorporated into the Roman Empire in 63 BC. When the empire was divided in the 4th century AD, Syria became part of the \TByzantine Empire\t. The most important and lasting conquest, however, was by Muslim Arab armies in AD 633-40, following the rise of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. Subsequently, Syria was converted to Islam and gradually Arabized. Damascus became the capital of the Muslim Arab \TUmayyad\t empire between 661 and 750. After the overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty, the area was controlled by the Baghdad-based \TAbbasids\t or by various Cairo-based Muslim dynasties. The seizure of Syria by the \TSeljuks\t in the 11th century was a precipitating factor in the \TCrusades\t. \TSaladin\t expelled the Europeans late in the 12th century. From the mid-13th to the early 15th century Syria was ruled by the \TMamelukes\t, although it was greatly weakened by \TMongol\t incursions, during which Damascus and Aleppo were sacked. Conquered by \TSelim I\t in 1516, Syria was part of the \TOttoman Empire\t until World War I, when growing Arab nationalism and opposition to Turkish control fueled a British-backed Arab rebellion. The expulsion of the Turks from Syria in 1918 did not result in the establishment of an independent state as the Arabs had wished. Instead, Britain and France divided the central Middle East, creating Syria and several other new states. The League of Nations formally approved the French mandate over Syria in 1922. In 1946, after a long struggle, full independence was attained. Much of Syria's postwar history has been turbulent. Between 1949 and 1963 there were frequent changes of government and many military coups. This instability resulted partly from the perceived illegitimacy of the state, whose existence was seen as an obstacle to achieving Arab unity. Because of Syria's commitment to pan-Arabism, it involved itself deeply in regional affairs and inevitably got caught up in the vortex of inter-Arab rivalries. Various plans for union with Iraq were unsuccessful, and the 1958 merger of Egypt and Syria to form the \TUnited Arab Republic\t collapsed in 1961. The continuing dispute with Israel (in which Syria has played a prominent role) and the intrusion of the cold war into the region were also disruptive. Finally, Syria suffered from deep regional, sectarian, class, and ideological cleavages. These manifested themselves in a series of complex power struggles, the most important of which was waged between the conservative and traditional elite, made up of large landlords and urban merchants, and a rising salaried middle class and peasantry pressing for reform and modernization. The Baath party, the most vocal and best organized advocate of change, won growing support, especially in the politicized, factioned officer corps and among minorities and peasants. The military coup that brought the Baath party to power in 1963 was a major turning point in Syrian history. Land reform and extensive nationalization redistributed wealth and undermined the power base of the traditional ruling class. A disproportionate number of the new elite were young Alawite officers from remote rural areas and small towns. Syria has enjoyed relative stability since 1963, although intra-party disputes have at times been bitter. A coup in 1966 marked the ascendance of the radical socialist neo-Baath under Salah Jadid. This regime's unpopularity and the loss of the GOLAN HEIGHTS to Israel during the 1967 \TArab-Israeli War\t contributed to the 1970 coup that brought Hafez al-\TAssad\t to power. Assad, a pragmatist, liberalized the economy and, initially, sought to improve relations with Syria's Arab neighbors. During the early 1970s, Syria experienced rapid economic growth fueled by rising oil prices. Assad's domestic stock also rose after the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, in which Syrian forces performed creditably. After the mid-1970s, however, the regime's problems mounted. Syria has long been deeply involved, militarily and politically, in the turmoil in neighboring Lebanon (where it has, at various times, supported different factions). It also seeks strategic parity with Israel. Military expenditures have therefore been a heavy burden, despite substantial assistance from other Arab countries and the Soviet Union, with which Syria signed a treaty of friendship in 1980. Discontent over the country's economic performance was aggravated by political and religious differences, corruption, and the perceived Alawite monopolization of power. In 1976, Muslim fundamentalist organizations began a wave of assassinations and bombings. The regime resorted to harsh repression, especially during large-scale disturbances in Aleppo in 1980 and an insurrection in Hama in 1982 in which several thousand civilians were killed. Questions about the regime's future were also raised when Assad suffered a heart attack in 1983, but he recovered quickly and was elected to a third seven-year term as president in 1985. Assad has skillfully used both force and diplomacy to make his country a significant power in the Middle East but became increasingly isolated in the Arab world in the 1980s due to his support of non-Arab Iran in the \TIran-Iraq war\t (1980-88) and his backing of radical Palestinians seeking to oust Yasir \TArafat\t as head of the \TPalestine Liberation Organization\t (\TPLO\t). Several Western nations imposed sanctions on Syria in the mid-1980s, charging that it was deeply involved in international terrorist activities. Opposed to separate negotiations with Israel, Assad condemned the 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty; the 1983 peace accord between Israel and Lebanon was canceled primarily because of his refusal to meet its conditions. A 1989 Syrian-brokered peace accord in war-torn Lebanon, where Syrian forces remain entrenched, appeared to take hold in the early 1990s. In 1990, Syria resumed diplomatic ties with Egypt (broken off in 1977). As one of the Arab countries joining the U.S.-led multinational force that expelled Iraq from Kuwait in the 1991 \TPersian Gulf War\t, it later received aid from the Gulf states. Both the Lebanon accord and its role in the Persian Gulf War contributed to Syria's reemergence as a major regional power in the 1990s. Alasdair Drysdale Bibliography: Castle, Wilfrid T., Syrian Pageant: The History of Syria and Palestine, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 1945 (1977); Devlin, John F., Syria: Modern State in an Ancient Land (1983) and The Ba'th Party: A History from Its Origins to 1966 (1976); Drower, M. S., Syria c. 1550-1400 B.C., 2 vols. (1970); Hinnebusch, R., Peasant and Bureaucracy in Ba'thist Syria (1989); Hopwood, D., Syria 1945-1986: Politics and Society (1988); Lewis, N. N., Nomads and Settlers in Syria and Jordan, 1800-1980 (1987); Longrigg, Stephen, Syria and Lebanon under French Mandate (1958); Maoz, M., and Yaniv, A., eds. Syria under Assad (1986); Olson, Robert W., The Ba'ath and Syria: The Evolution of Ideology, Party and State (1982); Ratnatunga, Manel, Syria: What Is She? (1983); Roberts, D., The Ba'th and the Creation of Modern Syria (1987); Seale, Patrick, The Struggle for Syria: A Study in Post-War Arab Politics, 1945-1958 (1965; repr. 1987) and Assad of Syria (1990); Van Dam, N., The Struggle for Power in Syria: Sectarianism, Regionalism, and Tribalism in Politics, 1961-1980 (1981).