Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is an independent nation in southern Europe. It extends southward from the Alps to the \TMediterranean Sea\t, forming a narrow, 1,100-km-long (700-mi), boot-shaped peninsula reaching almost to the northern coast of Africa. The peninsula is bordered by the \LLiguria\ln \TSea\t and the \TTyrrhenian Sea\t on the west, the \TIonian Sea\t on the south, and the \TAdriatic Sea\t on the east. It is advantageously located to control traffic between the eastern and western basins of the Mediterranean. The national territory includes the two large islands of \TSardinia\t and \TSicily\t; the smaller offshore islands of \TCapri\t and Ischia (both off the Bay of Naples) and \TElba\t (in the Tuscan Archipelago); the Lipari (Aeolian) Islands, north of Sicily; the islands of Pantelleria, Linosa, Lampione, and Lampedusa in the Strait of Sicily between Sicily and Africa; and--by agreements with Yugoslavia in 1954 and 1975--\TTrieste\t and the northern sections of \TIstria\t. Located on the Italian peninsula are two small independent enclaves--\TVatican City\t, in Rome, and the Republic of \TSan Marino\t, near \TRimini\t. Italy is bordered on the northwest by France, on the north by Switzerland, on the northeast by Austria, and on the east by Yugoslavia. The capital is \TRome\t. The name Italy was already in use during Roman times and came into the Latin language from the ancient Oscan tongue, which in turn may have taken it from a southern Greek dialect. Its etymology is linked to a Greek word meaning "calf," and according to a modern interpretation it is a reference to Calabria in southern Italy, where early inhabitants adopted the calf as their symbol. The modern Italian state dates from 1861, when the title king of Italy was conferred on \TVictor Emmanuel II\t, king of Sardinia. Before that time, Italy consisted of separate states which have retained a strong sense of regional identity and are identifiable today in the nation's 20 administrative regions. Eight of these states are located in northern (or Upper) Italy: \TEmilia-Romagna\t, \TFriuli-Venezia Giulia\t, \TLiguria\t, \TLombardy\t, \TPiedmont\t, \TTrentino-Alto Adige\t, \TValle d'Aosta\t, and \TVeneto\t. Six are in central Italy: \TAbruzzi\t, \TLatium\t, \TMarche\t, \TMolise\t, \TTuscany\t, and \TUmbria\t. Southern Italy contains four: \TApulia\t, \TBasilicata\t, \TCalabria\t, and \TCampania\t. The other two states are the island regions of Sardinia and Sicily. Italy has been historically important since Roman times, and millions of tourists are attracted each year to its ancient cities and art treasures. Modern Italy is an important industrial nation and a leading member of the \TEuropean Community\t (EC). Italy's rapid growth since 1950 has been referred to as the "Italian miracle"; the term is apt, because Italy has developed with few economic assets other than an abundant, skilled labor force. LAND Italy can be divided topographically into three parts--continental, peninsular, and insular Italy. Continental Italy, in the north, includes the broad, triangular-shaped North Italian Plain--Italy's only large lowland--and the high mountains of the Alps, which curve along the northern border in a broad arc about 1,300 km (810 mi) long and 150 to 250 km (93-155 mi) wide. These mountains extend from Savona, on the Ligurian coast, to near Trieste in the east. The highest peaks in the Alps are west of the \TSimplon Pass\t (linking Domodossola and Brig, Switzerland) and include Gran Paradiso, which rises to 4,061 m (13,323 ft) south of Aosta; Mont Blanc (see \TBlanc, Mont\t), the highest mountain in Europe, on the border with France; the \TMatterhorn\t, on the border with Switzerland; and Monte Rosa (see \TRosa\t, \TMonte\t), Italy's highest point. The central Alps, located between the Simplon Pass on the west and the Resia Pass on the east, rise over 3,300 m (10,800 ft) in the Lepontine Alps and to 4,049 m (13,284 ft) farther east in the Bernina Alps. Italy's eastern Alps include the Otztal and Carnic Alps, forming parts of the border with Austria; the Dolomites, rising wholly within Italy to 3,342 m (10,965 ft) in Marmolada; and the Julian Alps, located primarily in Yugoslavia. Peninsular Italy encompasses all of the Italian peninsula south of the North Italian Plain and the junction of the Ligurian Alps with the \TApennines\t at Savona. The Apennines form the backbone of the peninsula and reach their highest elevation in the central or Abruzzi Apennines. In the northern and central sections of the peninsula, the highest mountains are close to the Adriatic coast. Broad lowlands, backed by the rolling hills of the pre-Apennines, border the Tyrrhenian coast in Tuscany and Latium. In the south, the highest mountains are close to the Tyrrhenian coast, which is rocky, steep, and indented south of Naples. \TVesuvius\t, Europe's only active mainland volcano, is near Naples. Insular Italy includes Sardinia, Sicily, and many smaller islands off their shores. Sardinia covers an area of 23,812 sq km (9,194 sq mi) and rises to a high point of 1,834 m (6,016 ft) in the ancient granite massif of Gennargentu. Sicily covers an area of 28,812 sq km (11,124 sq mi) and rises to 3,262 m (10,703 ft) in Mount \TEtna\t. Northern Sicily is traversed by high mountains geologically related to the Apennines. This chain reappears across the Sicilian Channel as the \TAtlas Mountains\t of northern Africa. Two active volcanoes--\TStromboli\t and Vulcano--located on islands off the north coast of Sicily, together with frequent earthquakes felt throughout Italy, attest to the geologic youth of the Alpine chain and the Apennines. Only Sardinia is composed primarily of ancient rocks. Soils The richest and most productive soils for agriculture are the alluvial soils of the North Italian Plain and the smaller river valleys of the peninsula. Well suited for forestry and pasture are the brown podzolic soils, which developed under an original forest cover and are found throughout the Apennines. Regosols have developed on the weathered volcanic deposits of Tuscany and Latium and on the lower slopes of active volcanoes. Red soils are common in Apulia and in other limestone areas in the south. Climate Except for the Alps, which have a mountain climate that varies with altitude, Italy has a continental climate in the north and a Mediterranean climate in the south. Summer temperatures average 24 deg C (75 deg F) for July throughout the nation, but winter temperatures range from a January average of 1 deg C (33 deg F) at \TBolzano\t in the north to 7 deg C (45 deg F) at Rome, and 12 deg C (53 deg F) at Palermo on Sicily. The annual temperature range between summer and winter is greatest in the north (typical of a continental climate) and least in the south. Precipitation ranges from 1,067 mm (42 in) at Udine to 356 mm (14 in) in Catania, Sicily. It is concentrated during the winter in the south (typical of a Mediterranean climate) and during the warmer part of the year in the north. Six climatic subregions may be distinguished. The Alpine zone is characterized by harsh winters, abundant precipitation, frequent snow, and cool summers. The lowlands of the North Italian Plain experience harsh winters with long periods of frost, warm summers, precipitation concentrated in spring and fall, and intense fog in fall and winter. The coastal Tyrrhenian region has mild winters and hot, dry summers. The Adriatic coast has a climate similar to that of the Tyrrhenian coast but tends to be drier and colder in winter. The Apennines are climatically similar to the North Italian Plain. The islands have a typically Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild winters during which some rainy days can be expected. Drainage The main Italian waterway is the 652-km-long (405-mi) \TPo River\t, which drains most of the North Italian Plain and enters the Adriatic Sea about 56 km (35 mi) south of Venice. The \TAdige River\t, Italy's second longest, has a length of 410 km (255 mi) and flows into the Adriatic Sea north of the Po. In the peninsula, the main river is the 405-km-long (253-mi) \TTiber River\t, which flows from the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines through Rome and Ostia to the Tyrrhenian Sea. Also important in the peninsula is the 241-km-long (151-mi) \TArno River\t, flowing through Tuscany and the cities of Florence and \TPisa\t before entering the Ligurian Sea. The largest lakes in Italy are in the Alps and pre-Alps and are of glacial origin. The largest is Lake \TGarda\t, with an area of 370 sq km (142 sq mi); others are Lake \TMaggiore\t, and Lake \TComo\t. The largest lakes of the peninsula are Lake Trasimeno (Lake of Perugia) and Lake Bolsena, which was formed in an extinct volcanic crater. Vegetation and Animal Life About one-fifth of Italy is forested, with deciduous trees predominating in the North Italian Plain and needle-leaf trees at higher altitudes. The typical lowland Mediterranean woodland is a mixture of holm oaks, cork trees, maritime pines, cypresses, oleasters (wild olive), carobs, laurels, and myrtles. Forests of chestnut and oak are characteristic of cooler areas; they occur at elevations of about 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in the Alps, 1,100 m (3,600 ft) in the northern Apennines, and 1,800 m (5,900 ft) in Sicily. Above these limits are mainly beech trees, pines, and white fir. In the Alps at altitudes above 1,000 m (3,300 ft) forests of larch, spruce, and pine are found. Between the tree line (limit of tree growth) and the snow line stretch extensive alpine pastures. Heath is common on the North Italian Plain. The principal large animals found wild in Italy today are the brown bear, which inhabits the Alps and the Abruzzi mountains; wolves, found in the Apennines; wild boars, found in Sardinia; red deer, chamois, roe deer, and Alpine ibex, in Gran Paradiso National Park; and fallow deer and mouflons, on Sardinia. The most numerous birds are larks, crows, and wrens. Hawks, buzzards, eagles, and other birds of prey can be seen in some upland areas. Gran Paradiso and Circeo national parks are important centers for the conservation of endangered animal species. Resources Except for sulfur and mercury, Italy has only small deposits of minerals needed for industry. Consequently, coal and petroleum are imported in large quantities. Italian voters rejected the development of nuclear power in 1987. Abundant hydroelectric power is produced on rivers flowing from the Alps; this form of power is also increasingly important in the south. Arable land and pasture occupy about 70% of the land area; forests comprise about 20%. PEOPLE The Italian people are not ethnically homogenous, reflecting a long history of foreign invasion and migration. A variety of physical types is present in the population. Nevertheless, most speak Italian or dialects or languages related to Italian. These dialects vary considerably from region to region and are considered separate languages in the case of Sardinian, spoken by about 1.2 million people in Sardinia; Friulian, a Rhaeto-Romanic language spoken by about 520,000 people in the northeastern district of Friuli; and Ladin, a Rhaeto-Romanic language spoken in the mountains of the Alto Adige. The principal non-Italian minorities are about 260,000 German-Italians, who live in the Alto Adige (formerly Austria's South \TTyrol\t) and speak the German dialects of Austria and Bavaria; and 53,000 Slavic Italians, scattered in several areas in Friuli and Venezia-Giulia. In addition, some isolated minority groups live in southern Italy, including Greek-speaking communities in parts of Apulia and Calabria; Albanian colonies in Sicily and Calabria; and Serbo-Croatian communities in parts of Molise. French is spoken in the Aosta valley. Religion Almost 90% of Italians are Roman Catholics. Roman Catholicism was established as Italy's official religion by the \TLateran Treaty\t between Vatican City and Italy on Feb. 11, 1929; however, this legal status was abolished in 1984. Protestants constitute a small minority of about 180,000, and Jews number about 35,000. Demography Italy has one of the highest population densities in Europe. Densities of about 200 persons per sq km (322 per sq mi) occur in most of the North Italian Plain; the Ligurian coast; the Arno Valley and northern Tuscany; the hilly Adriatic regions of Marche, Abruzzi, and Molise; most of Umbria, Latium, Calabria, and Apulia; and many coastal areas in Sicily. The sparsely populated areas are the Alpine uplands, parts of the Apennines in Liguria and Calabria; and the marshes of Tuscany and Latium. Italy's current birthrate and death rate are slightly lower than the European average. Population growth decreased from 4.4% in the 1970s to 0.5% in 1990. Even though the average growth rate in the Mezzogiorno (south) is higher than in the north, the population of central and northern Italy has generally tended to grow faster than that of the Mezzogiorno, mostly because of an internal migration pattern in which people from the less developed south move northward in search of the greater economic opportunities they expect to find in the developed areas. Just under three-quarters of the population live in urban areas, a figure close to the European average. The largest city is Rome. \TMilan\t, \TNaples\t, and \TTurin\t each have more than one million inhabitants. Other large cities include \TGenoa\t, \TPalermo\t, \TBologna\t, \TFlorence\t, \TCatania\t, and \TVenice\t. Emigration has long been a feature of Italy's population. Between 1861 and 1965, an estimated 26.5 million Italians emigrated, primarily to the United States, Argentina, and Brazil. Only 6 million returned. Since World War II, emigration has continued but mainly by workers leaving temporarily for employment in other European nations, particularly western Germany and Switzerland. Only about 25% of all migrants during this period emigrated permanently overseas. During the 1980s and '90s a new trend developed: Italy itself began to attract immigrants, first from North Africa, then from Albania, Yugoslavia, and other Eastern European countries. Education and Health Education is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14. Children between the ages of 11 and 14 attend middle school, and those who graduate may continue their education in a classical or scientific high school, in a teacher training school, or in one of a variety of technical schools that prepare students for specific careers. Only a small number of students go on to study at a university. The principal universities are at Rome, Naples, Milan, Bologna, Turin, and Palermo. Italian education has made great progress in the 20th century. In the 1930s more than 20% of the population was illiterate. Today illiteracy has been virtually eliminated in northern Italy; the south, however, lags behind the rest of the country educationally as well as economically, and the school system suffers generally and chronically from inadequate financing and poor facilities, especially in sparsely settled rural areas. Health costs for most Italians are covered by compulsory insurance programs, but again, a shortage of medical facilities exists in rural areas. Many of the hospitals are run by Catholic religious orders. The infant mortality rate has gone down significantly since the 1970s and is below the European average. The principal causes of death are cancer, heart disease, and cerebrovascular disease. Cultural Institutions Academies are an important feature of intellectual life in Italy. Among the more prominent are the \TAccademia dei Lincei\t, founded in Rome in 1603; the National Academy of Saint Luke for fine arts, founded in the 14th century; Florence's Accademia Nazionale della Crusca (1582) for philological, lexicographical, and grammatical studies; and the National Academy of Saint Cecilia for music, founded in Rome in 1566. The leading research institute for mathematics, physics, and natural sciences is the National Research Council of Italy (1923). The leading libraries are the National Central Library (1747) in Florence, containing 4 million books; Rome's Victor Emmanuel II National Central Library, with 2.8 million volumes; and the Central State Archives (1871) in Rome, containing 120,000 volumes. Museums and art galleries can be found in all the larger towns. Among the most famous are the \TPitti Palace\t, \TUffizi\t, and National Museum in Florence; the Gallerio Borghese, Villa Giulia, Capitoline Museum, and National Gallery of Modern Art, in Rome; and the Accademia in Venice. The Universita Italiana per Stranieri, founded in 1925 in Perugia, offers courses in the history of Italian civilization and the Italian language for foreign students. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Modern industry developed in Italy at the beginning of the 20th century, about 100 years later than in other parts of Western Europe. This delay resulted in part from a lack of industrial raw materials, especially coal and other fuels. Other factors retarding industrialization were the survival into the 19th century of ancient feudal social structures and the political fragmentation that hindered the development of a single national market. Early industrialization was concentrated mainly in the northwest, where industrial agglomeration in the iron and steel, shipbuilding, engineering, and textile industries continues. The rest of Italy remained industrially underdeveloped and primarily agricultural until economic growth rapidly accelerated in the 1950s. Governmental participation in industrial development continues. Through autonomous public organizations, an estimated one-third to one-half of all production by privately managed and competing companies is directed by the state. In addition, programs such as the Southern Development Fund offer special financial incentives to companies locating in the south. These programs are part of the government's efforts to lessen the socioeconomic disparity between north and south. Manufacturing and Mining In 1990 manufacturing contributed about 39% to the gross national product and employed approximately one-third of the economically active population. About 25% of all industrial workers live in Lombardy, and another 10% live in Piedmont. Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, and Tuscany also have a large share of the industrial labor force. Italy's principal industries are the steel, automotive engineering, chemical, and textile industries. The principal steel-making centers are \TTaranto\t, Genoa, Naples-Bagnoli, and Piombino. The automobile industry is located in \TBrescia\t, \TModena\t, Milan, and Turin. Italy also exports sewing machines, typewriters, motor scooters, bicycles, mopeds, power tools, calculators, and refrigerators. Airplanes are manufactured in Turin, and ships are built at \TAncona\t, \TLa Spezia\t, Genoa, Naples, Trieste, and Venice. The production of petrochemicals such as plastics, fertilizers, and synthetic rubber is concentrated in the natural gas fields of the North Italian Plain and Sicily. The textile industry, important as early as the Middle Ages, was traditionally dependent on imported wool and cotton. Since the discovery of natural gas and petroleum, a synthetic fiber and fabric industry has developed. Florence and Milan are leading textile and garment centers. Artisans play an important role in the Italian economy and receive assistance from the government. Glass, pottery, lace, carved marble, and gold and silver filigree work are among the most famous hand-crafted products. Petroleum and natural gas are the leading minerals produced, but local output supplies only a fraction of the nation's needs. Most petroleum is extracted in the Sicilian district of Ragusa. Natural gas underlies much of the North Italian Plain and parts of Sicily. Other minerals, far less important in terms of total value, include marble, quarried as in Michelangelo's time at Carrara; lead and zinc, mined in Sardinia; sulfur, in Sicily; and bauxite, mined mainly in the south. Energy Petroleum is the principal fuel consumed, and about 84% is imported. Nearly 80% of all electricity is generated in thermal electric power plants; most of the remainder comes from hydroelectric installations. Agriculture About 9% of the labor force are employed in agriculture, which contributed some 4.3% to the gross national product in 1988. Slightly more than half of all land is used for farming, but productivity is low because only 29% of the land devoted to farming is in the fertile North Italian Plain; the rest is in the agriculturally marginal hill and mountain areas. Agricultural production is further limited by lack of investment capital for modern equipment, by a preponderance of tenant-farmed estates in the south, and by the small size of most farm units. The principal crops include wheat, which is grown throughout the nation, and corn and rice, grown mainly in the North Italian Plain where water is available in summer for irrigation of the rice crop. Olives, grapes, citrus fruits, peaches, and other tree crops are characteristic of Italian agriculture, especially in the typically Mediterranean central and southern regions. Early spring vegetables, grown near Naples and other southern areas, command high prices when shipped to northern Europe. Flowers are a specialty crop along the Ligurian coast. Livestock accounts for about 40% of all agricultural production by value, but Italy must import large quantities of meat, primarily from France and Germany. Dairy cattle dominate in the Alps and in the provinces of Emilia-Romagna, Lombardy, and Tuscany, and sheep and goats are raised in the hilly, drier areas of the south and in Sardinia and Sicily. Fishing and Forestry Many small fishing ports line Italy's long coast, but the catch is insufficient to meet the nation's needs. Some fishing fleets work in the Atlantic Ocean, but most fishers use small boats and outdated equipment. Forestry is of only minor importance, and Italy must import most of its wood. Transportation Road and freeway traffic is increasing as more Italians purchase automobiles; the highway (autostrade) system in 1988 covered 6,091 km (3,785 mi) of the 303,365 km (188,502 mi) of the road network. The most important expressway is the 1,250-km (777-mi) long Autostrada del Sole (Highway of the Sun), linking Milan, Rome, Naples, and \TReggio di Calabria\t at the southernmost tip of the boot, breaking the historic isolation of many southern communities. More than half of the 16,066 km (9,983 mi) of the railroad system is electrified. The Italian high-speed train, the Pendolino, runs from Turin and Milan down to Rome and Naples. The state-run railroad provides an alternative to highway travel. International air traffic is centered on Rome, located on international air traffic routes serving Europe and Asia. The Po River, navigable as far as \TCremona\t, is Italy's only natural inland water route. Small canals are used for transportation in Venice and in the North Italian Plain. Communications The Italian Radio and Television System (\Trai\t) is state-owned; it operates three television channels and three radio stations. A number of other privately owned TV networks and hundreds of local radio stations also exist. Most of the daily newspapers published in Italy have headquarters in either Rome or Milan. Trade Italy's imports are dominated by industrial raw materials, petroleum, meat, and cereal grains. The principal exports are manufactured goods and craft items, along with fruits and vegetables. Italy usually suffers a trade deficit, but the difference is partly offset by its large and profitable tourist industry and by money sent by Italian citizens working abroad. The principal ports are Genoa, Trieste, Taranto, Venice, Savona, and Naples. Petroleum is imported primarily through Augusta. A pipeline from Algeria, by way of Tunisia, to Sicily is under construction. Italy's principal trading partners are other members of the EC, especially Germany and France. Other major trade partners include the United States, and--for petroleum imports--Saudi Arabia and Iran. GOVERNMENT In a referendum vote held on June 2, 1946, Italy's monarchy was abolished and the Italian Republic established. The constitution was adopted on Dec. 22, 1947, and took effect on Jan. 1, 1948. According to the constitution, executive power lies with the cabinet, and legislative powers are vested in a parliament consisting of a 630-member chamber of deputies and a 315-member senate. Except for a few life members of the senate (including former presidents and some prominent citizens nominated by the president), both houses are elected directly by universal adult suffrage for 5-year terms unless dismissed earlier. The president of the republic is head of state and is elected to a renewable 7-year term by a joint session of Parliament and three delegates from each of the regional legislatures. Executive power rests with the council of ministers (cabinet) headed by the prime minister appointed by the president. Each of the 20 regions has an elected council, a president, and a "giunta regionale" that exercises executive power and is responsible to the regional council. Five of the regions--Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sardinia, Sicily, Trentino-Alto Adige, and Valle d'Aosta--are granted special autonomous status by the constitution. The principal political party is the Christian Democratic party, which has led or participated in every government since 1945. Other major parties are the Democratic Party of the Left (the former Communist party) and the Socialist party. Smaller political groups include the Social Democrats, the Republicans, the Greens, the Liberals, and the neo-Fascist Italian Social Movement. Paolo Migliorini Bibliography: Acquaviva, Santino, and Santuccio, Mario, Social Structure in Italy: Crisis of a System (1976); Adams, J.C. The Government of Republican Italy, 3d ed. (1972); Allum, P.A., Italy: Republic without Government? (1973); Barnes, Samuel H., Representation in Italy: Institutionalized Tradition and Electoral Choice (1977); Blim, Michael, Made in Italy: Small-Scale Industrialization and Its Consequences (1990); Carlyle, Margaret, The Awakening of Southern Italy (1962; repr. 1985); Forgacs, David, Italian Culture in the Industrial Era (1990); Ginsborg, Paul, A History of Contemporary Italy, 1943-1988 (1991); Haycraft, John, Italian Labyrinth (1987); Hofmann, Paul, That Fine Italian Hand (1990); Kurzweil, Edith, Italian Entrepreneurs (1983); LaPalombara, Joseph, Democracy, Italian Style (1987); Leonardi, Robert, et al., eds., Italian Politics, 2 vols. (1988-89), and, with Douglas Wertman, Italian Christian Democracy (1989); Murray, William, The Last Italian: Portrait of a People (1991); Rowan, Roy, ed., A Day in the Life of Italy (1990); Spotts, Frederic, Italy: A Different Democracy (1986); Templeman, Donald, The Italian Economy (1981); Tilly, Charles, et al., The Rebellious Century, 1830-1930 (1975); Walker, Donald S., A Geography of Italy, 2d ed. (1967); Woolf, S.J., ed., The Rebirth of Italy, 1943-50 (1972). See also: \TItalian art and architecture\t; \TItalian literature\t; \TItalian music\t; \TItaly, history of\t.