German literature, which comprises the literatures of Germany, Austria, and the German-speaking part of Switzerland, has always tried to integrate foreign influences, especially those of classical antiquity and France. Thus it is not surprising that the concept of a German literary tradition did not emerge before the 17th century; in fact, not before the end of the 18th century was Germany able to express its national identity in literary terms. Germany, for centuries a region divided by religious strife, was late in achieving political unity (see \TGermany, history of\t). The loose federation of small German principalities had no capital city as a dominant cultural center. This lack of national unity proved beneficial, however, because German literature developed in regional centers, and the resulting diversification of cultural trends prevented sterile uniformity. EARLY AND MEDIEVAL GERMAN LITERATURE Writings in the Old High German language, in use from c.800 to c.1050, mirror the conflict between the heroic tradition of the Germanic tribes with their concepts of honor, valor, and fate and the Christian gospel of humility, renunciation, and love. Among the earliest extant poems, the Song of Hildebrand (c.800; Eng. trans., 1906), an alliterative verse fragment, is genuinely pagan in its emphasis on fate, whereas the Heliand (c.830), an epic poem about the life of Christ, is an attempt to synthesize the old and the new: the savior becomes a Germanic duke, and the Christian message is presented in traditional heroic imagery. Otfried von Weissenburg's Evangelienbuch (Book of Gospels, completed c.870) set the precedent for a new Christian literature consisting of biblical paraphrases. This work, the first by an identifiable German author, introduced end-rhyme into German poetry. During the 10th century the monasteries were centers of culture, and Old High German was replaced by Latin. Three secular works merit attention: the Waltharius Manufortis (c.930; trans. as Walter of Aquitaine, 1950), which introduced classical hexameter; Ecbasis Captivi (c.940), the earliest extant beast fable in German literature; and Ruodlieb (c.1050; Eng. trans., 1959), a tale of the adventures of a young hero. \THroswitha von Gandersheim\t (fl. after 950), the first known German woman writer, was a nun who used the Roman playwright Terence as a model for her morality plays. During the Middle High German period (c.1050-c.1300), German literature reached impressive heights of achievement in its first Golden Age (c.1180-c.1220). Secular culture, perpetuated by minstrels (see \Tminstrels, minnesingers, and troubadours\t), now became the concern of the knights who celebrated \Tcourtly love\t in complex lyrics. Among the minnesingers who, influenced by Provencal troubadours, produced an abundance of songs, \TWalther von der Vogelweide\t attained a unique position. He overcame literary convention by turning away from empty gallantry to express powerful emotions of love, and by transforming the short poem of proverbial wisdom into a political weapon of satire and patriotism. The Arthurian legends (see \TArthur and Arthurian legend\t) popular in contemporary French literature also formed the basis of German heroic poetry. The idealized world of chivalry was counterbalanced by religious restraint in the work of \THartmann von Aue\t, especially in Der arme Heinrich (c.1195; trans. as Henry the Leper, 1905). \TGottfried von Strassburg\t, unchallenged master of elegant poetic style, glorified sensual passion in his unfinished \TTristan and Isolde\t. \TWolfram von Eschenbach\t created one of the most profound works of German literature in his Parzival (c.1210; Eng. trans., 1956), which symbolizes, in the quest for the Holy Grail, the search for eternal salvation. In the \TNibelungenlied\t (c.1200; Eng. trans., 1904) an anonymous author tried to combine the archaic legends of popular tradition with the refinement of the age by describing the exploits of the warrior Siegfried in the setting of courtly love and chivalry. Despite its humane sympathy, the poem retains a tragic, somber fatality. LATE MIDDLE AGES AND 16TH CENTURY Late medieval literature reflects the decline of knighthood and the rise of the city burghers. The high style of chivalry was frequently parodied, and human folly was satirized by such writers as Sebastian \TBrant\t and Johann Baptist \TFischart\t. The numerous plays, legends, and merry tales of Hans \TSachs\t exemplify the coarse humor of this period. Popular literature flourished, and \Lchapbook\ls, simple prose versions of verse romances, were widely read. These were important collections of folklore, as were the adventures of the prankster Till \TEulenspiegel\t. The \TFaust\t legend appeared in several versions at this time. In the hands of the \Lmeistersinger\ls, who cared only for observing literary conventions, poetry degenerated into a mechanical practice of matching rhymed lines. Prose writing, however, improved and acquired stylistic refinement and expressive quality. The mystics Meister \TEckhart\t and Johannes \TTauler\t contributed to this development as did \TJohannes von Tepl\t in The Bohemian Plowman (c.1400; Eng. trans., 1958). Martin \TLuther\t's translation of the Bible into German, and his beautiful religious songs, had a considerable effect on German culture. Some of the greatest literary works of the period, however, written in Latin by the humanists Ulrich von \THutten\t and Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522), contributed to the European Renaissance. The \TReformation\t forced these poets and scholars to take sides in the religious conflict. As a result the application of neoclassical principles to German poetry was delayed until the 17th century. THE 17TH CENTURY Writers of this period were obsessed with the idea that German was equal if not superior to the languages of neighboring countries. Academies (Sprachgesellschaften) were therefore founded in order to establish a pure language and correct grammar. The rules of literary neoclassicism were first formulated (1624) by Martin Opitz. In drama the separation of tragedy and comedy was rigorously observed. Seneca was the model for the tragedies of Andreas \TGryphius\t and Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein, whereas the Jesuits developed their own religious theater in Latin. In poetry the sonnet and the alexandrine verse were the preferred forms. The creation of bold images, musical effects, and new word combinations served to enrich the German language. Among the numerous skillful poets, Paul Fleming (1609-40), Gryphius, and Christian Hofmann von Hofmanns-Waldau (1617-79) are outstanding. The voluminous novels of the period are forgotten; only the ribald humor and colorful realism of Hans \TGrimmelshausen\t survives. The visionary Jakob \TBohme\t profoundly influenced the mystics of this century. THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES During the first half of the 18th century a controversy concerning poetic theory took place between proponents of rigid French classicism in drama and those who championed the merits of religious epic poetry. The creative production of both factions remained insignificant. The uselessness of the controversy was demonstrated by Gotthold \TLessing\t, who introduced a new concept of tragic experience. He replaced courtly tragedy with bourgeois drama and repeatedly praised William Shakespeare for his craftsmanship. Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm (1767; Eng. trans., 1930) remains the unsurpassed masterpiece of German comedy; his Nathan the Wise (1779; Eng. trans., 1955) is a stirring call for religious tolerance. In his critical writings Lessing created a German prose style of clarity and wit. Christoph Martin \TWieland\t added grace and playfulness to the language and flavored his verse and prose with subtle irony. Oberon (1780; Eng. trans., 1798) is his best-known epic poem; The History of Agathon (1766; Eng. trans., 1773) emphasizes the psychological growth of character. Friedrich Gottlieb \TKlopstock\t created in his Odes (1771; Eng. trans., 1848) a new poetic language of dynamic expression. He influenced the young \TSturm und Drang\t generation with his religious fervor and patriotic zeal. Sturm und Drang (1770-85) This movement praised original genius, demanded a poetry of strong passions, and found new models in Shakespeare's plays and in simple folksongs. Johann Gottfried von \THerder\t disseminated these ideas among youthful writers who included Johann Wolfgang von \TGoethe\t and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von \TSchiller\t. The first novel of this movement, Goethe's THE \TSorrows of Young Werther\t, brought its author international acclaim and disseminated the tenets of \Tromanticism\t throughout Europe. The literary aim of German romanticism during this period was the presentation of passion, regardless of considerations of traditional form. In later works, however, Goethe strove to endow his creations with the advantages of self-discipline. Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1795; Eng. trans., 1824), the classic \Tbildungsroman\t, was the outcome of this aim. The Second Golden Age In Weimar during the early 19th century Goethe and Schiller collaborated in creating works of enduring merit. Their goal was to integrate the ancient classical tradition into German romanticism. In Jena, August Wilhelm and Friedrich von \TSchlegel\t, the mystic \TNovalis\t, and the poet Ludwig \TTieck\t formed the first romantic circle. This was followed by other groups in Berlin and Heidelberg, whose members included Achim and Bettina von \TArnim\t; Clemens \TBrentano\t; Joseph, Freiherr von \TEichendorff\t; and Ernst Theodor Amadeus \THoffmann\t--famous as lyric poets and storytellers. Jacob and Wilhelm \TGrimm\t stimulated interest in early Germanic traditions. Two other writers of this period stand apart: Friedrich \THolderlin\t, whose poems achieved a synthesis of ancient Greek forms and modern sensibility, and Heinrich von \TKleist\t, who expressed his chaotic view of the world in passionate dramas and powerful short stories. Postromanticism After 1830 the grandiose period of German literature came to an end. The so-called Biedermeier poets (see \TGerman art and architecture\t) reacted by withdrawing into the realm of the family and idyllic nature. This resignation was replaced in the poems of Heinrich \THeine\t by new political directions and a realistic outlook. Many writers had to go into exile after the revolution of 1848 (see \TGermany, history of\t), among them Karl \TMarx\t and Carl \TSchurz\t. Throughout the 19th century the forms introduced by Goethe and Schiller prevailed: in poetry, the Lied derived from folksongs; in drama, the historical tragedy in blank verse; in prose, the novella, an artistically structured story centered on an extraordinary event. Annette Elisabeth von \TDroste-Hulshoff\t and Eduard \TMorike\t were the leading poets; Franz \TGrillparzer\t and Christian Friedrich \THebbel\t, the dramatists; Jeremias \TGotthelf\t, Gottfried \TKeller\t, Conrad Ferdinand \TMeyer\t, Wilhelm \TRaabe\t, Adalbert \TStifter\t, and Theodor \TStorm\t, the storytellers. Far ahead of his time was Georg \TBuchner\t, who rejected bourgeois values and wrote such plays as Woyzeck (1850; Eng. trans., 1957), in which he anticipated modern styles. The ideas of Friedrich Wilhelm \TNietzsche\t, who rejected the idealistic philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich \THegel\t and Arthur \TSchopenhauer\t, dominated German thought throughout the earlier part of the 20th century. THE 20TH CENTURY Because German realism had been tempered by a strong romantic tradition, \Tnaturalism\t came as a shock when it was introduced after 1885 by Gerhart \THauptmann\t and Arno \THolz\t. Hauptmann was able to overcome the narrow restrictions of naturalistic theory and, with sympathetic understanding, created convincing dramatic characters. Arthur \TSchnitzler\t, a contemporary of Sigmund Freud's, added a Viennese flavor to his erotic, melancholy plays. \Tsymbolism\t was introduced as a reaction to naturalism about 1900 by the poets Stefan \TGeorge\t, Rainer Maria \TRilke\t, and Hugo von \THofmannsthal\t. They wrote some of the most beautiful poems of modern world literature. Expressionism is a collective term for the style of certain poets and dramatists who were active between 1910 and 1925 (see \Texpressionism\t, literature). Before the war such poets as Gottfried \TBenn\t, Georg \TTrakl\t, and Georg Heym created apocalyptic visions or experimented with style. Toward the end of World War I and during the early years of the German republic, dramatists, notably Georg \TKaiser\t and Ernst \TToller\t, tried to revolutionize the theater. In the meantime the novel gradually developed from the refined realism of Theodor \TFontane\t, the chronicler of Prussian aristocracy and Berlin's lower middle class, to the epic canvases of Hermann \Tbroch\t, Alfred \TDoblin\t, Thomas \TMann\t, and Robert \TMusil\t. They portrayed the social, intellectual, and emotional problems of their time and refined narrative techniques in the manner of Marcel Proust or James Joyce. Literature under the Nazis Modern German literature was brutally suppressed by the Nazis. Most writers had to go into exile after 1933, and many were unable to return home after the war. In 1945, Germany was a cultural vacuum. There was an acute need to reestablish contacts with the outside world, and work that had been ignored or suppressed had to be rediscovered. A writer who had been known only as author of a few minor prose sketches--Franz \TKafka\t--appeared as a great novelist. Bertolt \TBrecht\t, who had written his best plays in exile, also became recognized as a classic modern writer. His theory of \Tepic theater\t and the alienation effect was applied by the Swiss dramatists Friedrich \TDurrenmatt\t and Max \TFrisch\t, who represented German drama in the 1950s. German Literature since World War II The literature of the postwar period has presented a wide variety of styles and trends of thought. The West German postwar literary resurgence was organized around \TGruppe\t 47, to which belonged the novelists Heinrich \TBoll\t, Gunter \Tgrass\t, and Uwe \TJohnson\t, who became the leading literary voices of the postwar era. Authors who have achieved an international readership for their works in translation include--in addition to the Gruppe 47 writers--the poets Ingeborg \TBachmann\t and Paul \TCelan\t; the playwrights Peter \TWeiss\t and Peter \THandke\t; and the novelist Christa \Twolf\t. German reunification promises to make the work of writers from the former East Germany more accessible to western audiences. Christoph Hering Bibliography: Baugarter, Lowell A., German Writing Since 1945 (1988); Bullivant, Keith, ed., The Modern German Novel (1987); Cernyak-Spatz, Susan E., German Holocaust Literature (1989); Demetz, Peter, German Postwar Literature (1970) and After the Fires: Recent Writing in the Germanies, Austria, and Switzerland (1986); Garland, Henry and Mary, eds., The Oxford Companion to German Literature (1976); Heller, H., In the Age of Prose (1984); Taylor, Ronald, Literature and Society in Germany, 1918-45 (1980).