South Carolina, the Palmetto State, was one of the original 13 U.S. states. Located on the Atlantic coast, it is bounded by North Carolina on the north and Georgia on the southwest. One of the smaller states, it ranks 40th in land area. The capital of South Carolina is \TColumbia\t, located in the geographic center of the state. The state's name is derived from Charles I of England, who granted "Carolina" in 1629 to Sir Robert Heath. The first permanent European settlement was at Charles Town--renamed \TCharleston\t in 1783--in early 1670. South Carolina assumed a position of political and social leadership during the colonial, revolutionary, and antebellum periods. The post-Civil War era and the early 20th century witnessed a severe social and economic decline in the state, but the rise of the New South in the last few decades has renewed the state's vitality. LAND AND RESOURCES South Carolina can be divided into three physiographic regions. The Coastal Plain, the largest and geologically youngest region, extends from the Sea Islands inland to the Sand Hills. The topography is flat near the coast but more rolling in the interior, where elevations reach 92 m (302 ft). Sandy barrier islands, many of which are being eroded, and salt marshes, covered by salt-marsh grass and black needle rush, constitute the common coastal environment. Old beach ridges are covered with maritime forests of palmetto (the state tree), live oak, loblolly pine, and wax myrtle. In the outer Coastal Plain, especially along rivers, numerous swamps support bald cypress, swamp tupelo, water oak, and willow trees. A physiographic feature unique to the plain is the many Carolina Bays, whose origin is still unknown. These elliptical bogs or lakes have a northwest-southeast axis and are bordered, predominately on the eastern quadrant, by a sand rim. Characteristic vegetation includes sweet and red bay (for which the feature is named), cypress, loblolly pine, and sweet gum. The Coastal Plain culminates in the Sand Hills, which extend from Aiken northeastward through Columbia to Cheraw. The sandy soils of these hills support scrub oak, blackjack oak, and longleaf pine. The \TPiedmont\t rises from the \Tfall line\t, which marks the boundary with the Coastal Plain, to an elevation of about 427 m (1,401 ft). Streams have cut deeply into the surface and left a rolling-to-hilly topography. Severe-to-moderate erosion, which followed extensive agricultural clearing, removed much of the topsoil and left the heavy red-clay subsoil now characteristic of the region. Native vegetation is basically hardwood: black, white, and red oak; pignut hickory; and dogwood. Shortleaf pine also grows in the Piedmont. Along streams cottonwood, yellow poplar, willow, sycamore, and sweet gum are common. The loblolly pine, which is not native to the Piedmont, has been widely planted for pulpwood. The \TBlue Ridge Mountains\t occupy a small portion of the northwest corner of the state. Elevations vary from 427 m (1,401 ft) to 1,085 m (3,560 ft) at Sassafras Mountain, the highest point in South Carolina. The thin, well-drained soils of the steep slopes are clayey to loamy. Drainage Cutting across the physiographic provinces, which rise in elevation northwestward from the coast, are the southeastward-flowing river systems, including the Savannah, Black, Edisto, Pee Dee, and Santee. The most extensive drainage basin is that of the Santee and its tributaries. The state's largest lakes are Clark Hill and Hartwell reservoirs and Lakes Marion, Moultrie, and Murray. Climate Average temperatures in January vary from 11 deg C (51 deg F) in Charleston to 7 deg C (44 deg F) in Greenville-Spartanburg. July averages are 26 deg C (79 deg F) in Greenville-Spartanburg and 28 deg C (82 deg F) in Charleston. The mean annual precipitation throughout the state totals 1,295 mm (51 in). Adequate rainfall complements a growing season of 290 days on the southern coast and more than 200 days in the northwest. Hurricanes occasionally threaten the coast. Animal Life The abundance of white-tailed deer permits a long hunting season. Fox, mink, muskrat, opossum, otter, rabbit, raccoon, skunk, and squirrel are protected species in South Carolina. Duck, geese, quail, and wild turkey attract hunters, and a wide variety of freshwater and saltwater fish is found in South Carolina's waters. Resources Forests cover more than 60% of South Carolina. Metallic minerals, including gold, were once mined there, but major resources today are limestone, sand, and gravel in the Coastal Plain, kaolin or china clay mined principally in Aiken County, granite in the Piedmont, and various clays for brick and tile mined in many areas. Other minerals include vermiculite, kyanite, and sericite. Petroleum deposits may lie off the South Carolina coast. Many rivers provide hydroelectric power. PEOPLE The resident population of South Carolina (1990 census) is 3,486,703. About 31% of South Carolina's population (1980) are nonwhite--one of the highest percentages in the nation. Most of the state's nonwhites are black. About 45% of the population live in the areas of Charleston, \TGreenville\t, \TSpartanburg\t, and Columbia. Major growth continues in those areas and along the northeastern coast. South Carolina's growth rate through the 20th century has lagged behind that of the United States as a whole. This resulted from net out-migration, which characterized the state until the 1970s. Between 1960 and 1970, the out-migration was 153,000. About 44,000 whites moved into South Carolina, but 197,000 blacks left. From 1970 to 1980, however, the state's population increased by more than 20%, almost twice the national average of 11.4%. From 1980 to 1990, South Carolina continued to grow at a rate slightly above the national average. The largest religious group is the Southern Baptists. Methodists and Presbyterians form the other major denominations in the state. Education Antebellum education was provided by private academies. Despite the 1868 constitution's commitment to free education for all children, public education did not begin in South Carolina until ratification of the 1895 constitution. It provided for the allocation of school funds and establishment of a state board of education. In per-pupil expenditures South Carolina ranks among the lower 20% of the states in the nation; however, South Carolina's per-capita income also is lower than that in many other states. Despite such factors, significant improvements have been made in public education. These include special programs for exceptional children, kindergartens for all children, student achievement measurements at various stages, and adult education programs. South Carolina's institutions of higher education include \TFurman University\t, and Bob Jones University, both in Greenville, and several state institutions (see \TSouth Carolina, state universities and colleges of\t). The state's technical education program, begun in 1969, provides job training for high school graduates to meet the needs of new industries. Cultural and Historical Sites Major museums in South Carolina include Gibbes Museum of Art in Charleston, the Columbia Museum of Art and Gibbes Planetarium, and the religious art collection at Bob Jones University in Greenville. The Charleston Museum (established 1773) is the oldest public museum in the United States. County and regional museums complement these. Many antebellum homes, plantations, and gardens are open to the public. National and state historical parks include \TFort Sumter\t, where the Civil War began, and Kings Mountain National Military Park. A total of 39 state parks have been established in South Carolina. Popular resorts are located along the Atlantic coast, especially on the section known as the Grand Strand (near Myrtle Beach), on the offshore Sea Islands, and in the mountains. Communications A leading state newspaper is the Charleston News and Courier (founded 1803). The South Carolina Educational Radio Network has won national broadcasting awards, and the state's educational television system is highly regarded. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY South Carolina's economy traditionally has been based on agriculture, principally rice and cotton. Recently, however, manufacturing has been increasing in importance. Before the Civil War, industry in South Carolina was limited to a few cotton spindles, but in the late 1880s textile mills began locating in the Piedmont. By the early 20th century, the state had become a leading cotton manufacturer, and in 1940 about 75% of the state's industrial workers were employed in the textile industry. Imaginative tax legislation, the work of the State Development Board, and the passage of a right-to-work law in 1954 have created an amenable environment for industry. Manufacturing South Carolina's principal industry remains textiles. Most textile mills are located in the northwestern part of the state. The industry has been hurt in recent years by foreign competition, however, creating a situation that has brought about some manufacturing diversification in the state. Other leading industries include chemicals, nonelectrical machinery, paper and paper products, and food and food products. Agriculture South Carolina's major agricultural commodities are cattle, broiler chickens, tobacco, soybeans, dairy products, and corn. Cotton, traditionally a leading crop, is still valuable, as are wheat and peaches. Major commercial fishing species are various saltwater fish and shellfish. About two-thirds of the state is covered by forests, most of which are classified as commercial timberland. Mining South Carolina has a small mining industry, producing only nonfuel minerals. It is a leading producer of vermiculite and mica (scrap). Other commercial minerals are kaolin (and other types of clays), cement, stone, and sand. Energy South Carolina's energy sources include nuclear power plants; coal, oil, and gas-burning plants; and hydroelectric plants. Large hydroelectric installations include the Santee-Cooper project and the Lake Murray dam. A large nuclear reprocessing and storage plant is located on the Savannah River. Because of the concentration of nuclear facilities, nuclear energy and radioactive waste materials were at the center of some controversy in the state in the 1980s. Tourism Tourism is an increasingly important industry in the state. More than three-fourths of the vacation spending is at Charleston and the resorts of Myrtle Beach and Hilton Head Island. Other major attractions are the Cowpens National Battlefield and Fort Sumter and Kings Mountain military sites. Transportation Interstate highways in South Carolina include I-26, which crosses the state in a northwest-southeast direction, and I-95, running north and south. Railroad facilities include freight service, provided by Southern Railway and Seaboard System Railroad, and limited Amtrak passenger service. The major port is at Charleston, and the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway is a major inland thoroughfare. International airports are at Charleston, Columbia, and Greenville-Spartanburg. GOVERNMENT South Carolina state government, based on the 1895 constitution, has three branches. Legislative authority rests with the general assembly, composed of the house of representatives and the senate. The 124 representatives serve 2-year terms and are elected from districts based on population. The 46 senators serve staggered 4-year terms and are elected from districts based on population distribution and county boundaries. The executive branch includes the governor, the lieutenant governor, and seven constitutional officers; each serves a 4-year term. Judicial authority is vested in the supreme court, composed of the chief justice and four associate justices. The justices, elected by the legislature, serve staggered 10-year terms. The legislative branch wields the greatest power, controlling appropriations, finances, and appointments to the state courts and to boards, commissions, and agencies. The governor is a virtual figurehead, who can do no more than persuade the legislature. The state is represented in the U.S. Congress by six representatives and two senators. The county is the unit of local government, supplemented by special districts such as school and fire districts. For many decades following \TReconstruction\t, South Carolina was staunchly Democratic. In return, the Democrats did not interfere with the state's racial status quo. During the Truman presidency, however, Republicans began to challenge Democratic prominence. In 1964, Sen. Strom \TThurmond\t, who had captured South Carolina's electoral votes as the candidate of the States' Rights Democrats in 1948, switched to the Republican party. Rejecting the liberalism of the national Democratic party, the state has voted Republican in every national election since 1960 except that of 1976. A Republican (James B. Edwards) was also elected governor in 1974, and Republicans have maintained some strength in later state elections. HISTORY About 25 or 30 distinct native tribes lived in South Carolina at the time of first European contact. The major groups were the \TCherokee\t, the \TCatawba\t, and the \TYamasee\t. By 1800 virtually all had been driven from the state. Francisco Gordillo was the first European to visit South Carolina in 1521. The Spanish attempted the first European settlement near present-day Georgetown in 1526, but it failed after 9 months. In 1663, King Charles II of England granted the territory that now comprises both North and South Carolina to eight lords proprietors, one of whom was Anthony Ashley Cooper, later 1st earl of Shaftesbury. The first permanent settlement, at Charles Town (Charleston) on the Ashley River, was established by the English in 1670. (It was moved in 1680 to the peninsula between the Cooper and Ashley rivers.) At first the new colony of Carolina was economically dependent on furs and skins from the Indian trade and on forest products such as lumber, resin, and turpentine. By the end of the 17th century, experiments with rice cultivation proved successful, and it became the leading crop of colonial Carolina, complemented after 1744 by indigo. The wealth derived from these crops supported the colony's cultural and intellectual efflorescence. Settlement spread from Charles Town south toward \TBeaufort\t (founded 1710), north toward Georgetown (1735), and inland along the rivers. By the 1750s, Germans and Scottish-Irish from Pennsylvania and Virginia were settling the Piedmont on small, subsistence farms in contrast to the coastal plantations. The pre-Revolutionary period (1725-75) was a prosperous one based on pelts and the rapidly expanding rice and indigo crops. The Southern Indian trade and agricultural exporting centered on Charleston, which became an increasingly rich and important port. The colony became more and more independent as the British did little to exercise control. South Carolina was early in resisting British rule. In 1693 the colony won the right to initiate legislation in the British House of Commons. In 1704 an act that would have required members of the colonial assembly to adhere to the rites of the Church of England was defeated. The church was, however, made official in 1706 and remained so until 1778. In 1719 the populace rebelled against the British proprietors and their reactionary policies, expelling them and electing James Moore as governor. As a result the British crown assumed (1729) jurisdiction, and North and South Carolina were constituted as separate colonies. A survey of the boundary between the two, begun in 1735, was not completed until 1815. The Revolutionary War, after the British repulse at Charleston in 1776, temporarily bypassed South Carolina. Then the British captured Charleston on May 12, 1780. The numerous battles and skirmishes fought in the state after 1780 included important American victories at Kings Mountain and Cowpens (see \TCowpens, Battle of\t). South Carolina was the eighth state to ratify the federal Constitution, on May 23, 1788. To mollify Piedmont settlers, who demanded increased representation, the General Assembly agreed in 1786 to move the capital. Columbia was established as the new seat of government. In the first federal census of 1790, South Carolina's population of 249,073 ranked 7th. Nonwhites accounted for 43.7% of the total and were concentrated in the low country around Charleston. Of major economic importance was the adoption at the end of the 18th century of short-staple, green-seed cotton. It was grown increasingly in the interior, and the cotton gin, greater European demand, and improved transportation (the canal system and river improvements began in 1795) made it a viable economic staple. Its success turned many Piedmont farmers into slave-holding planters and unified the state economically, socially, and politically. During the 1820s and '30s cotton prices collapsed, and the state's economy and population growth stagnated. Blaming these problems on the national tariff policies, South Carolina--led by Vice-President John C. \TCalhoun\t--asserted its right to nullify federal legislation. In 1832 a special state convention nullified the Tariff Act of that year. President Andrew Jackson responded to this action with a Force Act. The \Tnullification\t crisis was resolved by compromise, but \Tstate rights\t sentiment continued to grow in South Carolina. Dissatisfaction culminated in the convention that, on Dec. 20, 1860, voted to remove South Carolina from the Union, the first Southern state to secede. The Civil War began on Apr. 12, 1861, with the firing on Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Beaufort and Port Royal fell to Union forces on Nov. 7, 1861, but not until Sherman's invasion of the state at the beginning of 1865 was the impact of war felt. Severity of property loss, however, paled before the mortality figures for South Carolina: about 25% of the 63,000 who served were killed. Reconstruction was hard on South Carolina, and corrupt officials left the state with heavy debts. The election of Wade \THampton\t (1818-1902) as governor in 1876 and removal of federal troops by President Rutherford Hayes ended congressional Reconstruction. Poor cotton prices and severe soil erosion after 1880 stymied economic improvement, and agricultural distress led to political success for the farmers' movement. Its leader, Benjamin Ryan \TTillman\t, was elected to the governor's post (1890-94) and the U.S. Senate (1895-1918). A state constitutional convention in 1895 largely disenfranchised blacks. Strong populist leanings characterized South Carolina's politics for decades. By 1910 rice production had virtually disappeared, although cotton remained the state's leading crop into the 1950s. During the late 19th century the tenant system developed, and in 1930 it characterized 65% of the state's farms. During the early 20th century urban concentrations developed around Piedmont textile centers such as Greenville and Spartanburg, and the out-migration of blacks reduced their percentage of the population. World War I temporarily revived agricultural fortunes, but an economic depression, which lasted for two decades, and infestation by the boll weevil, which destroyed half the cotton crop, began in 1921. World War II was a watershed in South Carolina's history, enormously increasing emphasis on industrialization. By the early 1950s the state was actively seeking industry to complement the textile mills that had virtually monopolized the nonagricultural sector of its economy. This, complemented by a diversifying agricultural base, underpinned an expanding economy. Despite the 1954 Supreme Court decision (see \TBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas\t), South Carolina initially resisted racial integration. In the 1960s, however, under the leadership of moderate governors, school integration was achieved. Hurricane Hugo in 1989 did much damage in a dozen of the state's counties. John J. Winberry Bibliography: Carlton, David, Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880-1920 (1982); Federal Writers' Project, South Carolina, A Guide to the Palmetto State (1941; repr. 1971); Lander, Ernest M., South Carolina: An Illustrated History of the Palmetto State, ed. by Amy Adelstein (1988); Littlefield, D. C., Rice and Slaves (1981); McCrady, Edward, The History of South Carolina in the Revolution, 2 vols. (1901-02); Simkins, F. B., and Woody, R. H., South Carolina during Reconstruction (1932; repr. 1966); Wallace, David D., South Carolina: A Short History, 1520-1948 (1951; repr. 1984); Williams, G. C., A Social Interpretation of South Carolina (1946).