{sow'-dee} The kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the largest Middle Eastern country, occupies four-fifths of the Arabian peninsula (see \TArabia\t). The country is bordered on the north by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait; on the west by the Red Sea; on the south by Yemen and Oman; and on the east by the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the Persian Gulf. It has an estimated area of 2,331,000 sq km (900,000 sq mi), but this is far from precise since only the borders in the north, the boundary with Qatar, and a small segment of the border with Yemen are defined. In the 7,000 sq km (2,700 sq mi) neutral zone between Iraq and Saudi Arabia no permanent buildings or military establishments may be placed; nomads from both countries have access to its pastures and wells. A 1975 agreement divided the zone equally. A partitioned zone covering about 5,770 sq km (2,230 sq mi) also exists between Saudi Arabia and Kuwait; Saudi Arabia administers the southern half, whereas oil wealth from the entire zone is shared between both countries. The economy of Saudi Arabia is based on its vast petroleum reserves. Because Mecca and Medina, Islam's two holiest cities, are located in the country, several million pilgrims go there annually. Agriculture is limited because of the arid environment. The government has encouraged industrialization in an effort to diversify the economy. The Prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in AD 570, and soon his faith, Islam, had swept the Middle East and North Africa. The modern state of Saudi Arabia was formed by a series of conquests by Ibn Saud between 1902 and 1932. Influential in the \TOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries\t (\TOPEC\t), Saudi Arabia was a leading member of the coalition that defeated Iraq in the \TPersian Gulf War\t of 1991. LAND AND RESOURCES Saudi Arabia may be divided into four geographic zones: the Red Sea coastal plain and adjacent mountains; the central plateau including the Nafud and Dahna deserts; the coastal plain of the Persian Gulf; and the Rub al-Khali desert in the south. The western coastal plain extends for about 1,450 km (900 mi) along the Red Sea coast. In the north, near the Gulf of Aqaba, mountains reaching 610 m (2,000 ft) separate the coastal plain from the interior highlands. In the south the Asir highlands rise from the coastal plain to heights of 3,133 m (10,279 ft). The central plateau varies in elevation from 1,065 to 1,370 m (3,500 to 4,500 ft) and is about 485 km (300 mi) wide. The plateau is ringed by the Nafud, a red sand desert to the north; the Dahna, a long narrow belt of sand to the east; and the Tuwayq Mountains to the south. The eastern coastline extends along the Persian Gulf coast for about 565 km (350 mi) from Kuwait to the United Arab Emirates. It is an area of low relief, sedimentary rocks, gravel and sand, and salt and mud flats. This area contains the nation's petroleum reserves. The southern desert, the Rub al-Khali, or Empty Quarter, the largest continuous sand body in the world, covers 647,500 sq km (250,000 sq mi). Sand ridges hundreds of miles long and sand dunes high enough to be called mountains (elevations: 150-305 m/500-1,000 ft) are found in this virtually uninhabited area. Climate The climate is to a large extent determined by the southerly shift in wind patterns during winter months, which brings cyclonic systems and thus rain and cooler weather. Most areas receive less than 100 mm (4 in) of rain per year. In the Rub al-Khali, 10 years may pass without precipitation. On the west coast, cyclones provide some additional rainfall. The Asir highlands receive monsoonal rainfall that may amount to more than 255 mm (10 in) per year. Summers are hot throughout the country, with daytime temperatures often exceeding 49 deg C (120 deg F). Winter is cooler, with average temperatures of 23 deg C (74 deg F) at Jidda and 14 deg C (58 deg F) at Riyadh. Drainage, Plant and Animal Life, and Resources The country has no permanent rivers, but wadis, or intermittent streams that flow following periods of rainfall, are numerous. Vegetation is scant, consisting mostly of xerophytic (adapted to arid conditions) herbs and shrubs. Animal life includes ibex, wildcats, baboons, wolves, and hyenas in the highlands. Small birds are found in the oases, and tropical fish inhabit offshore waters. Only about 2% of the land is under cultivation, although an estimated 15% is cultivable. Mineral resources are much more abundant. Saudi Arabia is the Middle East's largest oil producer and contains about 25% of the world's known reserves--about 173 billion barrels. Numerous other minerals exist, including gold, silver, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, tungsten, lead, sulfur, phosphate, soapstone, asbestos, and feldspar, but little exploitation has occurred. Hydroelectric power, due to the lack of rivers, is virtually unavailable, except for that produced at a desalination plant at Jidda. PEOPLE The vast majority of Saudi Arabians are \TArabs\t, descendants of the indigenous tribes and still tribally affiliated. Some Iranians live along the Persian Gulf coast. The number of expatriate workers has declined dramatically since 1983, although the economy remains dependent on foreign labor. Arabic, the official language, is spoken by all; various dialects exist. English is understood by some residents of the eastern oil-producing areas, Riyadh, and Jidda. About 85% of the population are Sunni Muslims, most of whom are of the strict Wahhabi sect (see \TWahhabism\t). About 15% are Shiite Muslims, found in the east. Because of the strict adherence to Islam, the sexes are strictly segregated in public, although educational and job opportunities for women are increasing. The population is highly urbanized. \TRiyadh\t (the capital), \TJidda\t, \TMecca\t, al-Taif, \TMedina\t, Dharan, al-Damman, and \THofuf\t are the major cities. Many rural residents are nomadic \LBedouin\ls rather than settled cultivators. The Rub al-Khali and Nafud are virtually uninhabited; most other areas have low population densities. Densities are somewhat higher on the west coast, around Riyadh, and in the eastern oil fields. Important progress has been made in education in recent years, and schooling is free at all levels. The Islamic University (1961) at Medina is one of three universities stressing Islamic studies. Secular universities include King Saud University (formerly Riyadh University, 1957), the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (1963) at Dhahran, and King Abul-Aziz University (1967) in Jidda. Medical care is free for all citizens, but health facilities in rural areas remain limited. The Arabian peninsula has a tradition of formal poetry that goes back to the 5th and 6th centuries AD, before the time of Muhammad (see \TArabic literature\t). Poetry and storytelling are common folk traditions. The Koran limits public performances of music and dance and prohibits the making of graven images by artists. Hand-lettered Korans are produced with illustrations based on complex geometric and floral designs. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Prior to the discovery of petroleum in 1936, the economy depended on tourism to Mecca and Medina and on date exports. Saudi Arabia is still among the world's leading producers of dates, but today oil dominates the economy. The government has used petroleum profits to create the infrastructure needed to transform Saudi Arabia into a diversified industrial state. As oil revenues have declined, emphasis has shifted from construction to production. Due to the small size of the indigenous labor force, most industries are capital-intensive rather than labor-intensive. Mining and Industry Crude oil and petroleum products account for 85% of all exports, with most going to the North America, Western Europe, and Japan. In 1987 the country produced about 4.3 million barrels of oil per day, down from 9.8 million barrels per day in 1981 due to production cuts and a worldwide oil glut; but oil production increased in the early 1990s. The Saudi share of ARAMCO (Arabian-American Oil Company), which produces most of the nation's petroleum, increased from 25% in 1973 to 60% in 1974 to 100% in 1980. Major new industrial centers have been constructed at Jubail on the Persian Gulf and Yanbu on the Red Sea. They are powered by natural gas piped in from the oil fields. In addition to hydrocarbon-based industries such as oil refining, petrochemicals, and fertilizer, industrial products include iron and steel, cement, electrical equipment, and processed foodstuffs. Desalination plants meet most domestic water needs. Agriculture Despite the lack of water, the government has financed agricultural development to reduce the dependence on imported foods and raise standards of living in rural areas. The fishing industry is also being expanded. Transportation, Trade, and Tourism In recent years the highway network, long hampered by great distances and the hot and arid climate, has been greatly expanded. A causeway linking Saudi Arabia to Bahrain was opened in 1986. Air transport and port facilities have also been modernized. King Khalid Airport in Riyadh, opened in 1983, is the largest in the world. Threats to oil shipping on the Gulf led to the construction of pipelines linking oil fields in eastern Saudi Arabia and Iraq to the Red Sea port of Yanbu. Iraqi oil exports via Saudi Arabia were cut off after Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait. Due to its enormous petroleum reserves, Saudi Arabia plays a pivotal role in the global oil market. Dramatic increases in world oil prices created huge trade surpluses between 1973 and 1981, and Saudi Arabia remains a wealthy country despite substantial declines in oil earnings in the 1980s. Petroleum is the chief export and provides more than 90% of government revenues. Hundreds of thousands of devout Muslim pilgrims are another source of foreign exchange. Machinery, transportation equipment, and other manufactured goods are the leading imports. Saudi Arabia provides aid to many poorer nations in Asia and Africa. Its defense expenditures increased during the \TIran-Iraq war\t (1980-88) and the Persian Gulf War (1991). GOVERNMENT Saudi Arabia is a monarchy, and the laws of Islam (\TSharia\t) form the constitution. The king has both executive and legislative power, although an appointed council of ministers performs some legislative and executive functions subject to royal veto. Almost all important government positions are held by members of the Saud family, the large, powerful ruling clan. There are no political parties or legislature, but any citizen can submit grievances or requests for aid directly to the king at regular audiences called majalis. The nation is divided into 18 regions (emirates) for administrative purposes. Local officials report directly to Riyadh and are responsible for finance, health, education, and agriculture within their provinces. Justice is conducted according to the Islamic tradition of "an eye for an eye," and punishments are often harsh by Western standards. HISTORY A nomadic tribal structure has existed over most of the Arabian peninsula for thousands of years. The Minaean kingdom existed in southwestern Arabia during the 12th century BC. The Sabaean (see \TSheba\t) and Himyarite kingdoms were loose federations of city-states that lasted until the 6th century AD. In the northwest, the \THejaz\t region grew in importance by the end of the 6th century as a link in the trade route from Egypt and the Byzantine Empire to the east. The birth (570) of \TMuhammad\t in Mecca ushered in a new era in world history. Muhammad began preaching in Mecca but by 622 was forced to move to Medina. In 630 he returned with 10,000 converts to conquer Mecca. Muhammad died in 632, but his followers quickly spread his word across the Middle East and beyond. The capital of the Islamic world was moved to the more centrally located Damascus by the ruling Umayyads, and by 692, Arabia lost its political importance and became disunited. The Ottoman Empire nominally ruled much of the peninsula from the 16th century until World War I. Beginning in 1902, \TIbn Saud\t, a follower of the strict Wahhabi sect of Islam, conquered and unified the Nejd, Hasa, and Hejaz regions. In 1932 the kingdom of Saudi Arabia was created, with Saud as king. Oil was discovered in 1936, but large-scale drilling did not begin until the end of World War II. Ibn Saud died in 1953 and was succeeded by his son \TSaud\t. From 1962 until 1967, Saudi Arabia aided the royalist forces in the Yemen civil war against the Egyptian-backed republican forces. In 1964, Saud was deposed by a meeting of the Saudi family council and was replaced by \TFaisal\t, who began modernizing the country. Faisal was assassinated by a nephew in 1975. His successor, \TKhalid\t, followed a more moderate policy in the Arab-Israeli dispute. Upon Khalid's death in 1982, Crown Prince \TFahd\t succeeded to the throne. Saudi security concerns increased after the Islamic revolution in Iran and the 1979 seizure of the Great Mosque in Mecca by Sunni Muslim extremists; there were clashes between Iranian demonstrators and Saudi police during the 1987 pilgrimage to Mecca. Saudi Arabia had supported Iraq against Iran in the \TIran-Iraq war\t (1980-88), but the August 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait was seen as a threat to Saudi security. Saudi Arabia became the base for the U.S.-led multinational force (including 45,000 Saudi troops) that ousted Iraq from Kuwait in the 1991 war. The crisis forced Saudi Arabia to abandon its traditionally neutral foreign policy, strengthened Saudi nationalism, and led to the suspension of Saudi aid to Jordan, Yemen, and the Palestine Liberation Organization. Ira M. Sheskin Bibliography: Bingdagji, Hussein H., comp., Atlas of Saudi Arabia, 3d ed. (1978); Cleron, Jean P., Saudi Arabia 2000 (1978); Grayson, Benson Lee, Saudi-American Relations (1982); Holden, David, and Johns, Richard, The House of Saud (1982); Katakura, Motoko, Bedouin Village (1977); Lanier, Alison R., Update--Saudi Arabia (1980); Long, David, Saudi Arabia (1976); Mackey, Sandra, The Saudis: A Report Inside the Desert Kingdom (1987); Moliver, Donald, and Abbundante, Paul J., The Economy of Saudi Arabia (1980); Nyrop, R. F., et al., Area Handbook for Saudi Arabia (1977); Troeller, Gary, The Birth of Saudi Arabia (1976).