{roh-mayn'-ee-ah} Romania, a republic on the lower Danube River in southeastern Europe, borders on the Moldavian and Ukrainian republics of the \TUSSR\t on the north and northeast, Hungary and Yugoslavia on the west, Bulgaria on the south, and the Black Sea on the east. The name Romania came into being in 1862, following the 1859 unification of the principalities of \TMoldavia\t and \TWalachia\t, then under Turkish suzerainty, and emphasizes Romania's Latin heritage as the Roman province of Dacia during the 2d and 3d centuries AD. Romania won full independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877. The monarchy, established in 1881, was ended in 1947 when the Communists came to power. Beginning in 1965 the Communist state was controlled by Nicolae \TCeausescu\t. Ceausescu's 24-year rule was characterized by relative autonomy from the \TUSSR\t, orthodox socialist social and economic policies, and an increasingly intensive reliance on Stalinist methods of coercion coupled with a ludicrous personality cult. In December 1989, Ceausescu was overthrown and executed in a violent revolution that brought Ion Iliescu and the Front of National Salvation to power. LAND AND RESOURCES Romania may be divided into three regions. In the center is the Transylvanian basin, an area of hilly, fertile farmlands developed on beds of sand, marl, and clay overlain by deposits of loess and alluvium. Elevations in the basin range from 300 to 600 m (1,000 to 2,000 ft). Surrounding Transylvania is the second region, the \TCarpathian Mountains\t. The Eastern Carpathians, stretching from the Soviet border to cover most of western Romania, average 1,200 m (3,900 ft) in elevation. The Southern Carpathians, or Transylvanian Alps, are higher; rising to their highest point in Mount Moldoveanu, they extend from the Prahova Valley in the east to the Timas-Cerna corridor in the west. The Western Carpathians, between the Danube and Somes rivers, have an average elevation of 645 m (2,115 ft). Romania's third region is one of plains that ring the entire country except in the north and are separated from the mountains by hilly piedmonts. The western plain, reaching to the Hungarian and Yugoslavian borders, is an extension of Europe's mid-Danubian plain. In the south is the Walachian plain, a gently sloping area that descends southward from 300 m (1,000 ft) near the southern piedmont to 30 m (100 ft) in the marshes, lakes, and wet meadowlands near the Danube River. In the northeast, extending from the piedmont to the Prut River border with the \TUSSR\t, lies the Moldavian plain, an area of undulating lowlands and tablelands between 200 and 500 m (650 and 1,650 ft) in elevation. The marshy Danube Delta expands downstream from Galati, and to the south, between the Danube and the Black Sea, is the \TDobruja\t, a low plateau. The highest elevation in the country is Moldoveanu (2,543 m/8,343 ft). Soils True black chernozem soil, well suited to agriculture, is found in the Moldavian plain; and degraded or modified chernozem varieties occur in the other plains as well as in the Transylvanian basin. Along the Danube and its tributaries are belts of fertile, alluvial soil. Brown forest soils occur on the lower mountain slopes. Climate Romania's warm summers and cold winters define a transitional temperate-continental type of climate. Average annual precipitation is about 635 mm (25 in) and ranges from more than 1,270 mm (50 in) in the mountainous areas to less than 400 mm (15 in) in Dobruja and the Danube Delta. Most rain falls in late spring and early summer; late autumn and winter are the driest periods. The average temperature is between -3 deg and -5 deg C (27 deg and 23 deg F) in January and 22 deg to 24 deg C (72 deg to 75 deg F) in July. Significantly cooler temperatures prevail at all seasons in the mountains; the warmest areas in summer are the Walachian plain and Dobruja in the south. Drainage Except for eastern Dobruja, which drains directly to the Black Sea, all of Romania is drained by the \TDanube River\t and its tributaries. The major tributaries are the Prut, Siret, Ialomita, Arges, Olt, Jiul Mures, Somes, and Timas rivers. Spring flooding of the rivers is a serious and recurring problem, and in the Danube Delta and along the northern bank of the Danube in the Walachian plain are extensive marshlands. Romania has about 2,500 small lakes. Vegetation and Animal Life Forests cover about one-quarter of Romania and most of the lower mountain slopes. Coniferous forests, with fir and spruce predominating, supply most of the commercial timber cut at higher elevations in the Carpathian Mountains. Beech and other deciduous trees predominate on the lower slopes. Alpine pastures occur above the tree line between 1,525 and 1,830 m (5,000 and 6,000 ft), and tundra occurs at higher elevations. Large animals include deer, bears, foxes, wolves, and boars. Numerous species of predatory birds and waterfowl frequent the Danube Delta and marshes. Resources Romania's major natural resources are its fertile soils and its rapidly descending waters, ideally suited for hydroelectric exploitation. Romania's once-important petroleum reserves are nearly depleted, although new fields are constantly being explored and tapped. Natural gas and coal deposits somewhat compensate for dwindling petroleum supplies. Lead, zinc, sulfur, and salt are sufficient for domestic needs. Approximately three-fifths of the land is suitable for agriculture, two-thirds of which is cultivated. PEOPLE About 87% of the population are ethnically Romanian; 8% are Hungarian; 2%, Gypsy; 1.5%, German; and the remainder, Ukrainian, Yugoslav, Russian, Bulgarian, and Turkish. The densest concentrations of ethnic Hungarians and Germans are found in \TTransylvania\t. Language and Religion Romanian, an eastern \TRomance language\t, is the official language. Hungarian is used by the Hungarian minority, and German and other languages by the relevant minorities. Most Romanians belong to the Romanian Orthodox church. In 1990 the government relegalized the Uniate, or Eastern Rite Catholic church, which was forcibly merged with the Orthodox church in 1948 and which may claim as many as 2 million members, primarily in Transylvania. About half of Romania's Hungarians are Roman Catholics, and the remainder either Calvinists or Unitarians. Lutheranism is important among the German minority. Demography One-half of Romania's population live in rural areas, making it among the least urbanized European countries. The capital, \TBucharest\t, is the largest city. Other cities with populations of more than 200,000 are \TBraila\t, \TBrasov\t, \TCluj-Napoca\t, \TConstanta\t, \TCraiova\t, \TGalati\t, \TIasi\t, ORADEA, \TPloiesti\t, and \TTimisoara\t. Population is densest around Bucharest and Ploiesti, along the Siret River valley in Moldavia, and the Transylvanian lowlands. Education and Health Education is compulsory and free for Romanians between the ages of 6 to 16. The first eight years are spent in primary and junior secondary schools, and the last two to five years may be spent in a variety of secondary institutions. There are more than 100 post-secondary institutions, including the universities at Brasov, Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Craiova, Galati, Iasi, and Timisoara. Decentralization of the post-secondary educational system was among the first acts of the National Salvation Front. While health care, in a network of hospitals, clinics, and sanitoriums staffed by trained professionals, is free, the facilities are overcrowded and suffer from a lack of equipment and medicines. The Arts Contemporary arts in Romania draw inspiration from European folk traditions and general European culture. The post-revolutionary government has abjured the Communist regime's official socialist realist style and its policy of deprofessionalization of the arts. The decorative folk-art tradition, with its colorful geometric motifs expressed in wood carvings, textiles, pottery, and architecture, remains the quintessential Romanian style, even when syncretized with more universal genres. Renowned artists include Nicolae Grigorescu and Teodor Aman in the 19th century; and Constantin \TBrancusi\t, Stefan Luchian, and Nicolae Tonitza in the 20th century. Brancusi, who lived most of his life abroad, was an outstanding sculptor and is probably the best-known Romanian artist outside his own country. Georges \TEnesco\t was the founder of the modern school of Romanian music and integrated lilting folk melodies into his compositions. Under the overthrown Communist regime cultural activity was stifled and the arts relegated to political propaganda. (See \TRomanian literature\t.) ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Under the Communists, the Romanian economy was highly centralized and functioned within a framework of official plans aimed at transforming Romania from an agricultural into an industrial nation. The centrally planned system achieved impressive rates of growth until the 1980s, when the economy slid into a decline. The post-revolutionary government is pledged to steer toward a mixed economy with prices determined by the market, while retaining the characteristics of a social democratic welfare system. Manufacturing During the Communist era industry was nationalized, and heavy industry, particularly machine-building, received the lion's share of state investments. During the 1970s and 1980s investments yielded relatively low increases in productivity, and aging fixed industrial assets became increasingly energy inefficient. The steel industry, dependent on ore and coal imports, is centered at Galati, Calarasi, and Resita. Because of its petroleum industry, Romania has a developed petrochemical manufacturing capacity. Textile manufacture and food processing are important light industries. Power While hydroelectric power generation, especially from the shared (with Yugoslavia) Danube \TIron Gate\t stations, is important (20% of the total), much of Romanian power is fueled by natural gas, which Romania possesses in abundance. Nevertheless, the country continues to import much of its energy. Agriculture During the Communist era more than 90% of Romania's agriculturally productive land was collectivized into state and cooperative farms. Agriculture employed more than a quarter of the work force, but farm productivity was low due to lack of incentives, ill-advised investment priorities, bad management, and under-mechanization. Immediately after the revolution of 1989, in an effort to increase production, the provisional government greatly increased the amount of land the state or cooperative farm family could cultivate on its own. Romania's principal crops are corn, wheat, rye, sugar beets, potatoes, oilseeds, vegetables, and fruit. Dairy products, wines and spirits, and prepared meats are also produced in significant amounts. Although domestic food shortages characterized the last years of the Communist regime, Romania remained a net food exporter. Forestry and Fishing Careful harvesting of once overexploited timber reserves is the basis for important lumber, paper, and furniture industries. Fish catches, primarily from the Danube and its delta, are also significant. Transportation While railroad transportation remains important, two-thirds of all goods and three-quarters of all passengers are now moved by road. Two-thirds of Romania's roads are paved. Ports include Constanta, Braila, Mangalia, and Galati. The Danube-Black Sea Canal was completed in 1984, but it is too shallow to accommodate most ocean-going ships. Tarom, the national airline, serves domestic and international airports. Trade In the 1980s the \TUSSR\t claimed at least one-quarter of Romania's foreign trade. Half of Romania's imports are mineral fuels. Exports include machinery, fuels, chemicals, textiles, and food. In 1989, Ceausescu announced that, as a result of a draconian austerity program initiated in 1982, Romania had paid off a foreign debt that had amounted to $10 billion in 1980. GOVERNMENT Multiparty elections were held on May 20, 1990. A bicameral legislature, a 119-seat Senate, and a 396-seat Chamber of Deputies, to serve as a Constituent Assembly for a maximum of two years, was assigned the task of drafting a new constitution to replace the Communist constitution of 1965. Ion Iliescu, a former Communist, was elected president. The first prime minister, Petre Roman, was succeeded by Theodor Stolojan in October 1991. HISTORY Dacian tribes living in what is now Romania were defeated by Roman Emperor \TTrajan\t in AD 106, and for the next 165 years the country was the Roman province of Dacia. During that time the native population was Romanized, and a proto-Romanian language developed from spoken Latin. The Romans abandoned the region toward the end of the 3d century, and in subsequent centuries Romania was invaded by Goths, Slavs, and Bulgars. Hungarians occupied \TTransylvania\t from the 11th century on, and the area maintained essential independence of both the Turks and the Austrians until the end of the 17th century. In 1711, however, Austria secured effective control. The nuclei of modern Romania, the two Danubian states of Walachia and Moldavia, emerged in the 13th and 14th centuries, respectively. Turks established suzerainty in the 15th century, and, despite fierce resistance, the Romanian feudal lords became vassals of the \TOttoman Empire\t while maintaining considerable autonomy. Some of these princes, such as \TMichael the Brave\t, attempted to defy the Ottomans and to extend the sphere of their control. From 1711 to 1821 governors were appointed by the sultan, with local authority resting with the boyars, the landlords of large estates. During the \TRusso-Turkish War\t of 1828, Russia occupied Walachia and Moldavia, and although they nominally remained Ottoman possessions, they actually became Russian protectorates. In 1848 a Romanian rebellion against both foreign and boyar control was suppressed. Following the \TCrimean War\t, Russian troops vacated Moldavia and Walachia, which were recognized as autonomous principalities under Ottoman suzerainty. In 1859, Alexandru \TCuza\t was elected prince of both principalities, and they were officially united as Romania in 1861-62. Bold sociopolitical reforms took place during Cuza's reign. In 1866, however, he was forced to abdicate and was replaced by Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who led Romania in its War of Independence (1877-78; see \TBerlin, Congress of\t) from the Ottoman Empire and was crowned (1881) as King \TCarol I\t. During the next 35 years the state was gradually modernized, and foreign policy was directed toward regaining Transylvania and \TBessarabia\t, leading to Romania's participation (1913) in the second \TBalkan War\t. Carol I was succeeded by his nephew \TFerdinand\t in 1914, and Romania joined World War I against the Central Powers in 1916. With the Allied victory in 1918, postwar Romania's area doubled to 296,400 sq km (114,000 sq mi) and included the regained territories of Transylvania, Bessarabia, the Banat, and \TBucovina\t. In the years immediately following World War I, extensive land reform and limited democratization of the political process took place. Romania became an active participant in international affairs and was a founding member of the League of Nations and of the \TLittle Entente\t (1921) and Balkan Entente (1934). In 1938, King \TCarol II\t established a royal dictatorship, but he abdicated when opposition to his rule by groups such as the fascist \TIron Guard\t led to violence on both sides; Carol II was replaced by his son Michael. The same year Romania was forced to cede Bessarabia to the \TUSSR\t, northern Transylvania to Hungary, and southern Dobruja to Bulgaria. In 1940 the government passed into the hands of Gen. Ion \TAntonescu\t, who assumed dictatorial powers, and Romania became allied with the Axis. Romanian forces, joining Adolf Hitler's invasion of the \TUSSR\t, were defeated, and the \TUSSR\t invaded Romania. Antonescu was overthrown on Aug. 23, 1944, and Romania reentered World War II on the side of the Allies. Communist groups forced King Michael to accept a pro-\TUSSR\t government in 1945. After the war Communist strength increased, and in December 1947, King Michael was forced to abdicate and Romania was proclaimed a people's republic, with Gheorghe \TGheorghiu-Dej\t, leader of the Romanian Communist party, as the nation's new leader. He was a loyal follower of the \TUSSR\t until it became clear during the early 1960s that the \TUSSR\t wanted to relegate Romania to the status of a perpetually underdeveloped supplier state. In response, Gheorghiu-Dej steered Romania on an increasingly independent course, and in a statement of April 1964 the Romanian leadership declared its economic and political independence from the \TUSSR\t. Nicolae Ceausescu, who succeeded Gheorghiu-Dej on his death in 1965, implemented a policy of independent multilateral socioeconomic development. Although a member of both the \TCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance\t (\TComecon\t) and the \TWarsaw Treaty Organization\t, Romania pursued an active foreign policy independent of the \TUSSR\t while upholding a repressive regime in domestic affairs. Ceausescu ruled the country for more than two decades, establishing a dictatorship that became increasingly harsh and arbitrary. In December 1989 anti-Ceausescu riots broke out in Timisoara and quickly spread to Bucharest and other cities. In a brief but violent revolution, which pitted Ceausescu's secret police against the rest of the nation, the regime was overthrown and the dictator and his wife were executed. A coalition including former dissidents, Communist party members, and army officers, calling itself the Front of National Salvation, took over. Front candidates won clear majorities against candidates of the opposition parties in the elections of May 1990, but the following month the government drew widespread criticism when it forcibly dispersed opposition demonstrators in Bucharest. In 1991, Iliescu acknowledged that his government was using former Communist secret police to help maintain public order. Romania took no public position when Soviet Moldavia declared its independence on Aug. 27, 1991, and announced that Romania thenceforward would represent it in international affairs. Walter M. Bacon, Jr. Bibliography: Behr, Edward, Kiss the Hand You Cannot Bite: The Rise and Fall of the Ceausescus (1991); Fischer-Galati, Stephen A., Twentieth Century Rumania (1970); King, Robert, History of the Romanian Communist Party (1980); Nelson, Daniel, Romanian Politics in the Ceausescu Era (1988); Otetea, Andrei, and MacKenzie, Andrew, A Concise History of Romania (1985); Seton-Watson, Robert W., History of the Roumanians from Roman Times to the Completion of Unity (1934; repr. 1963); Shafir, Michael, Romania: Politics, Economics, and Society (1985); Thompson, Juliet, Old Romania (1977); Turnock, David, The Romanian Economy in the Twentieth Century (1986).