New Mexico, located in the southwestern United States at the southern end of the Rocky Mountains, borders Mexico on the south, Arizona on the west, Colorado on the north, Oklahoma on the east, and Texas on the east and southeast. With an area of 314,925 sq km (121,593 sq mi), it ranks fifth among the states in size. New Mexico's population, however, is less than 1% of the total for the United States; it ranks 37th in the number of inhabitants. Hispanics form about 38% of the state's population, and Indians constitute about 9%. Like other southwestern states, New Mexico has been experienced an in-migration of Anglos from the midwestern and eastern states. Population growth of 28.1% between 1970 and 1980 and 16.3% from 1980 to 1990 showed a sharp increase when compared to the 6.9% for the period between 1960 and 1970. Initially explored and settled by Spaniards, the area remained a Spanish--and then Mexican--territory until annexation by the United States in 1846. Statehood was achieved in 1912. The name New Mexico was given to the state to distinguish it from the independent nation to its south. Its scenic beauty and unique cultural characteristics are reflected in New Mexico's nickname, Land of Enchantment. \TSanta Fe\t, founded in 1609, is the state capital. New Mexico has been a major contact point between three cultures--Indian, Spanish-Mexican, and Anglo-American. Historically a land of cattle and sheep ranching with some irrigated agriculture, the state is experiencing new growth based on tourism, retirement communities, aerospace and defense research and testing, and the development of petroleum, natural-gas, and other energy resources. LAND AND RESOURCES New Mexico encompasses a variety of landforms, which may be divided into four major regions, all of which extend beyond its borders: the \TRocky Mountains\t, the \TGreat Plains\t, the \Tbasin and range province\t, and the \TColorado Plateau\t. In north central New Mexico are the southern Rocky Mountains, dominated by the San Juan and Sangre de Cristo ranges. The highest elevations in the state are found there. The \TRio Grande\t flows between these two mountain systems and continues south to follow a small part of the boundary between New Mexico and Texas. Eastern New Mexico is made up of a section of the Great Plains, traversed by the \TCanadian River\t and \TPecos River\t. A flat strip of land along the Texas border is known as the Llano Estacado (Staked Plains) or High Plains. Much of southern New Mexico is part of the basin and range province. Several rugged north-south mountain ranges, particularly the Black, San Andres, Sacramento, and Guadalupe, are separated by basins, including the Jornada del Muerto and the Tularosa. The state's fourth region, a section of the Colorado Plateau, is in northwest New Mexico. It is a high-lying area with extensive valleys, deep canyons, mesas, buttes, and colorful sandstone formations. Soils Thin, granular, brownish gray desert soils cover most of New Mexico. Alluvial soils are limited to the areas along narrow river valleys, and some podzols can be found at higher elevations. Drainage The Rio Grande is New Mexico's largest and longest river, flowing south through the state for a distance of 756 km (470 mi). Two-thirds of the eastern plains is drained by the Pecos River, which joins the Rio Grande in west Texas. Other rivers include the San Juan in the northwest and the Cimarron and the Canadian in the northern third of the eastern plains. The Continental Divide passes through western New Mexico, but only the \TGila River\t and the San Juan flow toward the Pacific. A large area of closed drainage, characterized by salt pans and playa lakes, is found in the southwestern desert. Groundwater sources provide water for urban areas along the Rio Grande and are used in the eastern plains for irrigation along the Texas border. No sizable natural lakes exist in New Mexico, but marshlands have formed along the Rio Grande and Pecos River. Climate Three distinct climatic regions are discernible in New Mexico: the semiarid eastern plains, the western deserts, and the mountain areas, where conditions result in sharply increased moisture. The distance from moisture sources and the presence of the subtropical high-pressure zone account for the western deserts. The greater rainfall of the eastern plains results from a summer inflow of warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico. Aridity, warm-to-hot summers, and mild-to-cold winters are the dominant climatic characteristics of New Mexico. Precipitation averages less than 400 mm (16 in), and summer temperatures often climb to 38 deg C (about 100 deg F). Snow covers the northern third of the state and the higher elevations in the winter months. The southwestern desert receives about 200 mm (8 in) of rain, yet precipitation exceeds 1,000 mm (39 in) in the Sangre de Cristo range in the north. Most precipitation occurs in the summer as convectional thunderstorms, but a second, smaller concentration is associated with the passage of winter storm fronts. Vegetation and Animal Life Six zones of native vegetation are found in New Mexico. The Lower Sonoran zone of mesquite and black grama grass occupies the lower Rio Grande and Pecos valleys and the southwestern part of the state below 1,400 m (4,500 ft). About 80% of the state lies in the Upper Sonoran zone of blue grama grass, buffalo grass, pinon pine, and juniper. The remaining four zones, covering less than 10% of the state, are found in the mountains at about 2,100 m (7,000 ft) and consist of ponderosa pine, blue spruce, Douglas fir, and alpine cover. Native fauna includes the antelope, mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, bear, and javelina, or peccary. Quail, ducks, and turkeys are also present. About 300 species of birds can be found, and numerous migratory waterfowl pass through the state or spend the winter there. Resources Surface water resources are limited because of overall low rainfall. Extensive aquifers are present, however, particularly below the eastern plains. New Mexico is rich in certain minerals and fuels. Gold and silver were important in the 19th century, but they have been replaced by copper in the Silver City area and uranium near Grants. New Mexico is a leading state in the production of uranium, potash, and perlite. Most of the nation's potash comes from a small area near Carlsbad in southeastern New Mexico. Fuel resources include petroleum and natural gas in the southeast and northwest, and extensive bituminous and subbituminous coal deposits in the northwestern and northeastern portions of the state. Also present are semiprecious turquoise, agate, jasper, and opal. PEOPLE The population of New Mexico (1990 census) is 1,515,069. New Mexico is a sparsely settled state. Bernalillo and Los Alamos are the most densely populated counties. Nearly one-third of the population lives in Bernalillo County--metropolitan \TAlbuquerque\t. Only six cities other than Albuquerque--SANTA FE, \TLas Cruces\t, Roswell, Farmington, Rio Rancho, and Clovis--have more than 30,000 in population. New Mexico experienced rapid population growth during the 1970s and continued to grow--though at a slower pace--during the 1980s. The growth can be attributed to in-migration from other states as well as to natural increase. The most rapidly growing areas are Albuquerque, Santa Fe, Las Cruces, Roswell, Rio Rancho, and the energy-producing region of the northwest. The Hispanic population, high in the state as a whole, is a large majority in certain northern counties. Spanish remains the dominant language in those areas and is spoken widely throughout New Mexico. Indians, most of whom are Pueblo, Navajo, or Apache, reside primarily on 5 reservations and in 19 pueblos; they are very numerous in the northwest counties of McKinley and San Juan. The Bureau of Indian Affairs controls 31,330 sq km (12,097 sq mi) of land. About one-half of the population is Roman Catholic. Recent migrations of Anglo-Americans into New Mexico, however, have altered both the ethnic and religious character of the state. Education Education from the elementary grades through the university level is dominated by public institutions. Local school districts maintain primary and secondary education responsibility under the guidance of the State Board of Education. The state operates six universities as well as junior colleges and a vocational school (see \TNew Mexico, state universities of\t). The College of Santa Fe (1947) and St. John's College (1964) are important private institutions in New Mexico. The city of Albuquerque maintains the largest public library in the state. Culture The \LSant\le FE \Topera\t, the Albuquerque Opera Theatre, and the New Mexico Symphony Orchestra in Albuquerque, are nationally recognized music groups. Major museums of anthropology and Southwestern culture are maintained in Santa Fe and Albuquerque. Art galleries and regional historical museums are also found in those two cities and in \TTaos\t, Carlsbad, Roswell, and Mesilla (near Las Cruces). The artist Georgia O'KEEFFE used the area surrounding her home near Taos as the subject for many of her works. Of special interest are the International Space Hall of Fame at \TAlamogordo\t, the Robert Goddard rocket collection at the Roswell Museum and Art Center, and the Living Desert State Park in Carlsbad. Santa Fe, the second oldest city in the United States, has maintained its colonial appearance by restrictive zoning within the original town limits. Most of the Indian pueblo villages date to preconquest times; particularly notable are Taos, \TAcoma\t, and Santo Domingo pueblos. Other places of historical significance are Mesilla, once the capital of Arizona Territory, the Pecos Mission ruins, Fort Union and Fort Selden, and the former mining towns of Mogollon and Cerillos. Communications The Albuquerque Journal, the Albuquerque Tribune, and the New Mexican of Santa Fe are the largest of the numerous daily newspapers in the state, which also has a generous share of weekly papers. New Mexico is well supplied with both AM and FM radio stations; television channels include educational operations as well as private, network-affiliated broadcasters. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY The economy of New Mexico has grown dramatically in recent years, mostly as a result of federal government operations within the state. Government employs about 25% of the work force and generates 17% of the gross state product. The federal government maintains many research centers in New Mexico, principally concerned with developing weapons or nuclear energy. Despite the growth, the state perennially falls below the national average in per capita income. Agriculture Agriculture contributes a small but still significant proportion to state revenues. Most of this income is derived from livestock products. Cattle graze on the grasses of the eastern plains, on the more sparse vegetation of the southwestern desert, and in some mountain pastures. Animals are then fattened in feedlot operations before slaughter. Irrigated agriculture, made possible by dams and reservoirs on the Rio Grande, Pecos, San Juan, Canadian, and Cimarron rivers as well as from wells near Clovis and Portales, produces cotton, sorghum, pecans, corn, peanuts, pinto beans, lettuce, onions, and chilies. The number of farms remained at about 14,000 through the 1980s, although farm acreage decreased slightly during the decade. Most farmland is privately owned, although many large ranches include leased grazing lands under federal ownership. Approximately one-third of New Mexico's land is owned by the U.S. government. Forestry Forests cover about 25% of New Mexico, but forestry is limited to small operations in the more humid mountains. Ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, and spruce are cut for timber. Mining New Mexico's great mineral wealth enables it consistently to rank among the leading U.S. states in mineral production. Petroleum, natural gas, and coal are the leading minerals in terms of their total value. Copper, molybdenum, potash, and uranium also contribute to the state's economy--uranium being important partly because of its rarity. Manufacturing Mineral and agricultural processing, electronics and defense production, and weapons research and testing dominate New Mexico's industrial sector. Mineral processing is located close to areas of production near \TGallup\t, Artesia, Carlsbad, Grants, Raton, and Silver City. Defense-related research and industry are found in \TLos Alamos\t and Albuquerque and at the \TWhite Sands Missile Range\t, between \TAlamogordo\t and Las Cruces. Tourism Tourism is an increasingly important aspect of the state's economy as its abundant recreational, scenic, and historic sites are developed. Desert landscapes, mountains, forests, and clear skies with spectacular sunsets provide a backdrop for the great cultural diversity of Indian pueblos, Spanish colonial settlements, abandoned mining camps, and modern cities. \TCarlsbad Caverns\t National Park and 9 national monuments are in the state, and Texas's Guadalupe Mountains National Park is nearby. White Sands National Monument also attracts many tourists. The state maintains a system of 43 state parks. Many camping sites and picnic areas are available on national forest, state, and Indian lands. Resort areas include the mountain fringe near Santa Fe and Taos, thermal mineral baths at Truth or Consequences, and winter sports centers in the Sangre de Cristo, Sandia, and Sacramento mountains. Transportation Two major east-west interstate highways as well as historic transcontinental railroad lines cross New Mexico. A north-south interstate highway connects El Paso, Texas, and Denver, Colorado, passing through Las Cruces, Albuquerque, and Santa Fe. Thousands of kilometers of federal and state highways link all regions of the state. Major airlines serve Albuquerque, and commuter airlines connect that city with outlying urban centers. Major railroad branches link the east-west trunk lines. Energy New Mexico is a major exporter of energy fuels. Petroleum and natural-gas exports generally account for the bulk of New Mexico's mineral sales, although falling gas and oil prices hurt the state in the mid-1980s. The recession of the early 1980s slowed development of the state's extensive coal reserves. Nonetheless, coal and natural gas are the principal fuels used for the generation of electricity. Geothermal energy potential has been investigated in a belt paralleling the Rio Grande. Solar energy has been applied to home and industrial heating and cooling. The state's environmental protection efforts have been directed at air-quality maintenance, groundwater pollution control, and preservation of forest and wilderness areas. GOVERNMENT The New Mexico constitution, adopted on Jan. 21, 1911, provides for executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The executive branch includes the governor and 9 other elected officials who serve for 4-year terms. The legislature is divided into a senate with 42 members elected to 4-year terms and a house of representatives whose 70 members serve 2-year terms. The judicial system includes probate courts, district courts, an appeals court, and a supreme court presided over by a chief justice and four associate justices. Each of the 32 counties is governed by a 3- or 5-member elected commission. Incorporated cities are governed by elected commissioners. The Democratic party has dominated statewide politics in New Mexico since statehood in 1912. The governor's office was occupied by Republicans during most of the 1950s and part of the 1960s, however. In the 1970s and most of the 1980s the governorship was controlled by Democrats, Bruce King (1971-75, 1979-83), Jerry Apodaca (1975-79), and Toney Anaya (1983-87). During the same period the Democratic party predominated in the state legislature. In national presidential elections, New Mexico has always cast its electoral votes for the winning candidate except in 1976, when the Republicans carried the state and Democrat Jimmy Carter was elected president. HISTORY Indians first lived in New Mexico about 20,000 years ago, developing the \TFolsom\t and Sandia cultures, named for the sites in the state where artifacts were found. Around AD 1000 the \TAnasazi\t developed an advanced culture in northwestern New Mexico; the Mogollon Indians lived in the southwest. By about 1500 these groups had migrated, and the \TApache\t, \TComanche\t, and \TNavajo\t moved in. The Apache and Navajo roamed through the region, and the \TPueblo\t Indians--descendants of the Anasazi--cultivated maize, beans, and squash in irrigated plots along the Rio Grande. The first white persons to visit present-day New Mexico were probably Alvar Nunez \TCabeza de Vaca\t and some Spanish companions in 1536. The Franciscan priest Marcos de Niza and his black slave Esteban entered the area in 1539, searching for the Seven Golden Cities of \TCibola\t (actually \TZuni\t villages that contained no particular wealth). Several other Spanish expeditions followed, including those of Francisco Vazquez de \TCoronado\t and Antonio de Espejo. Juan de \TOnate\t entered in 1598 from New Spain, now Mexico, following the route of the Rio Grande valley, and the first European settlements were established at San Juan Pueblo in 1598 and Santa Fe in 1610. Under Spanish colonial rule, and then under Mexico, the area remained a region of cattle and sheep grazing lands, with small farm villages along the Rio Grande and occasional mission settlements. The Spanish often treated the Indians harshly, forcing them to work for the colonizers and undermining their traditional culture. In 1680 the Pueblos staged a great rebellion, but the Spanish regained control by the early 1690s. Relations with the \TUte\t, Apache, Comanche, and Navajo tribes remained poor for most of the 18th century, and little economic development took place in the region. In the early 1820s, New Mexico became a province of newly independent Mexico, and contact with the United States increased. Anglo-American traders from Kansas and Missouri opened the \TSanta Fe Trail\t in 1821. In 1822, William Becknell, an American trader, inaugurated travel along the route connecting New Mexico with Independence, Mo. In 1846, during the Mexican War, Gen. Stephen \TKearny\t occupied Santa Fe and easily took control of New Mexico for the United States. The Territory of New Mexico was organized in 1850, and the \TGadsden Purchase\t of 1853 added a strip of land to its south, fixing the present boundary between the United States and Mexico. In 1863, New Mexico was given its present boundaries upon the formation of the Arizona Territory. Early in the Civil War, Confederate forces captured much of the area, but they were soundly defeated at Glorieta Pass near Santa Fe in March 1862 and withdrew soon after. Following the war, cattle ranching grew in importance, and struggles took place among cattle ranchers and between sheep and cattle ranchers. New Mexico became effectively linked to the rest of the United States upon completion (1881) of the southern transcontinental railroad from Kansas City to Los Angeles; it passed through Raton, Las Vegas, Albuquerque, Socorro, and Deming. Cattle ranching expanded, irrigated commercial agriculture developed, and mining operations brought new dimensions to the economy. On Jan. 6, 1912, New Mexico entered the Union as the 47th state. During the 1920s, mining--especially of petroleum and potash--increased, and tourism began to be economically important. In recent decades new industries have moved to New Mexico to take advantage of vast areas of open land and favorable atmospheric conditions. Military weapons development and testing became important during World War II; the first atomic bomb was exploded at Trinity Site in a remote area of New Mexico on July 16, 1945. Rocket and missile testing continues over a large area of southern New Mexico. Los Alamos was established as a scientific research community. In the postwar period several other major defense facilities were built in New Mexico, thereby aiding the state's economy and helping to increase the population. Uranium was discovered in northwestern New Mexico in 1950. Mining of copper, coal, potash, and uranium--along with the extraction of petroleum and natural gas--has further diversified the economy, although the industry has been vulnerable to fluctuating oil and gas prices in the 1980s. Additional irrigated croplands have also contributed to economic growth following the construction (begun in 1911) of dams and reservoirs on the state's rivers. During the 1960s and '70s many private scientific research centers were established in the state. The state's natural beauty has made it an increasingly popular destination for both tourists and those seeking a retirement residence. In spite of the changes taking place in the rapidly growing state, New Mexico's people remain proud of their rich cultural heritage. Ronald C. Sheck Bibliography: Armstrong, Ruth W., New Mexico, from Arrowhead to Atom (1967); Beck, Warren A., New Mexico: A History of Four Centuries (1962; repr. 1977) and, with Haase, Inez D., Historical Atlas of New Mexico (1969; repr. 1985); Davis, W. W., El Gringo: New Mexico and Her People (1982); Fergusson, Erna, New Mexico: A Pageant of Three Peoples, 2d ed. (1964); Fitzpatrick, George, and Sinclair, John, Profile of a State: New Mexico (1964); Garcia, F. Chris, and Hain, Paul L., eds., New Mexico Government rev. ed. (1981); Gregg, A. K., New Mexico in the Nineteenth Century (1968); Hilleson, L., Route Sixty-Six Revisited: A Wanderer's Guide to New Mexico (1988); Jenkins, Myra Ellen, and Schroeder, Albert H., A Brief History of New Mexico, 2d ed. (1973); Kenner, Charles L., A History of New Mexican-Plains Indian Relations (1969); Kern, Robert W., Labor in New Mexico: Strikes, Unions, and Social History, 1881-1981 (1983); Larson, R. W., New Mexico's Quest for Statehood (1968); Lopez, Thomas R., Prospects for the Spanish-American Culture of New Mexico (1974); Roberts, Calvin and Roberts, Susan A., New Mexico (1988); Sheck, Ree, Agriculture Made New Mexico Possible (1977); Simmons, Marc, New Mexico: A Bicentennial History (1977) and Albuquerque: A Narrative History (1983); Sunseri, Alvin R., Seeds of Discord: New Mexico in the Aftermath of the American Conquest, 1846-1861 (1979).