Canada, the world's second largest country (after the \TUSSR\t), is the largest country in the Western Hemisphere and comprises all the North American continent north of the United States, with the exclusion of Alaska, Greenland, and the tiny French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. Its most easterly point is Cape Spear, Newfoundland, and its western limit is Mount St. Elias in the Yukon Territory, near the Alaskan border. Its east-west extent is 5,187 km (3,223 mi) and is so wide that seven time zones lie within its borders. The southernmost point is Middle Island, in Lake Erie; the northern tip of land is Cape Columbia, on \TEllesmere Island\t, 1,850 km (1,150 mi) north of the Arctic Circle. Canada is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and its associated bodies of water, including Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea. Its only international land boundary is with the United States--on the northwest, between Canada and the state of Alaska, and on the south, where the U.S.-Canada border is 6,416 km (3,987 mi) long. Canada has a total population (1990) of nearly 27 million, or approximately one tenthh that of the United States. About 80% of this number live within 160 km (100 mi) of the U.S. border on the south; approximately 89% of the country is virtually unsettled. Because of these vast tracts of virtually uninhabited northern forests and tundra, Canada has one of the lowest population densities in the world. Canada is rich in natural resources. It is a world leader in value of mineral exports and produces and exports many of the minerals needed for modern industrial economies, although a few minerals, such as manganese, chromium, bauxite, and tin, must be imported. Its soils, which are especially rich in the three prairie provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, are intensively utilized and make Canada one of the world's largest exporters of agricultural products. Forests cover much of the land, and Canada is the world's largest exporter of newsprint and a leading supplier of lumber, pulp, paper, and wood products. Canada has a dual cultural heritage that stems from the British conquest (1763) of the French colony of New France. Today both French and English are official languages. The threat of separatism by the largely French-speaking province of Quebec was an issue through the 1980s, although a 1980 referendum mandating the sovereignty of Quebec was defeated by Quebec's electorate. The 1987 Meech Lake accord, an addition to the 1982 constitution (see \TConstitution Act\t) that acknowledged Quebec's distinctness, failed in 1990 when two provinces refused to finalize it. The name Canada is thought to be derived from Kanata, the Huron-Iroquois word meaning "village" or "community." THE LAND AND RESOURCES Physical Regions Canada has six major physical, or physiographic, regions: the \TCanadian Shield\t, the Arctic Islands, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian Region, the Interior Plains, and the Cordilleran Region. Canadian Shield. In simple terms, Canada can be considered a vast, saucer-shaped basin, bordered by mountainous lands on the west, east, and northeast. \THudson Bay\t and the lowlands along its southern shore form the central depression of this "saucer." Surrounding this depression on all sides, including \TBaffin Island\t, is the Canadian Shield (also known as the Laurentian Plateau or Laurentian Upland), a region of ancient, mostly Precambrian rocks that covers nearly half of Canada. The Canadian Shield includes all of Labrador and large areas of Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and the Northwest Territories. As a result of glacial action during the Pleistocene Ice Age, much of the region is covered with numerous lakes and marshy areas. Arctic Islands. The Arctic Islands lie to the northwest of the central depression and constitute about 8.3% of Canada's land area. They are mostly covered by permanent snow and ice fields. The northern sections of the region include the United States Range, which reaches 2,926 m (9,600 ft) in northern Ellesmere Island. The southern sections are lower in altitude and are sometimes referred to collectively as the Arctic Lowlands and Plateaus. Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands region constitutes only 1.3% of Canada but is the area where most people live. It is a flat to gently rolling region that extends southwest from Quebec City to Lake Huron and includes all of the St. Lawrence River valley and the Ontario Peninsula, a triangular, densely populated area of southern Ontario that is bordered by the shores of Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Appalachian Region. The Appalachian Region occupies approximately 3.4% of Canada and is the northward continuation into Canada of the Appalachian Mountain system of the eastern United States. It includes all of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and the island of Newfoundland and forms most of Quebec's \TGaspe Peninsula\t. It is a region of geologically old, worn-down uplands, with summits ranging from 150 m (500 ft) to more than 1,270 m (4,160 ft). The highest and most rugged mountains are in the Shickshock Mountains of the Gaspe Peninsula, where Mount Jacques Cartier rises to 1,270 m (4,160 ft). Interior Plains. The Interior Plains lie between the Canadian Shield and the Rocky Mountains and are a continuation of the Great Plains of the United States. The region occupies 18.3% of Canada; it extends to the Arctic coast and includes the northeastern section of \TBritish Columbia\t and parts of the prairie provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. The southern sections are principal grain-growing areas. The northern sections support some pioneer farming communities but are generally too cold for commercial agriculture. Cordilleran Region. The Cordilleran Region occupies 15.9% of all Canada and includes most of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory and the southwestern corner of Alberta. It is a complex mountain system, approximately 800 km (500 mi) wide, that extends along the Pacific coast. The three main subsections of the region are the eastern ranges, the western ranges, and an intermontane area between the two. The eastern ranges include the \TRocky Mountains\t in the south and the Mackenzie and Richardson Mountains in the north. They include such scenic areas as Banff and Jasper national parks and rise to 3,954 m (12,972 ft) in Mount Robson; at least 20 other peaks are higher than 3,000 m (10,000 ft). The western ranges of the region include the St. Elias Mountains, which reach 6,050 m (19,850 ft) in Mount \TLogan\t, the highest point in Canada; the scenic Coast Mountains, along the mainland shores, which rise abruptly from the sea to heights of more than 3,000 m; and a partially submerged range that appears offshore \TVancouver Island\t and the \TQueen Charlotte Islands\t separated from the mainland by a structural depression known as the Coastal Trough. The intermontane section of the Cordilleran Region, located between the eastern and western ranges, is a series of wide, rolling tablelands, such as the Fraser and Kamloops plateaus, and short mountain ranges, such as the Cascade, Cariboo, Selkirk, Monashee, Purcell, Stikine, Skeena, and Hazelton mountains. Soils Tundra and subarctic soils cover 31% of Canada, mostly in the north, with ice and stone deserts found over large areas. The subsoil in much of this area is permanently frozen, and the soils are unsuitable for agriculture. Podzol soils, which are soils of low natural fertility found in forested regions, cover 26% of Canada. They are most extensive in the Appalachian Region and in most of the Canadian Shield north of a line through Quebec and Sudbury. Podzol soils tend to be acidic, gray in color, and leached of soil nutrients, but they are suitable for farming where climatic conditions permit and where fertilizers are used. Brown and gray brown soils cover most of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands and the southern fringes of the Canadian Shield in Quebec and Ontario. These soils are naturally fertile and, when properly farmed, support a wide range of crops and other agricultural activities. Of the western soils, the three chernozemic, or black earth, soils are the most important. Although they cover only about 7% of Canada, mainly in the southern part of the interior plains, they account for nearly all of Canada's wheat production. The true chernozem, or black earth, is extremely productive and is found in an arc passing through Winnipeg, Edmonton, and Calgary; grain crops and mixed farming are the principal activities on these rich soils. To the south, forming a more southerly arc passing through Regina, Saskatoon, and Lethbridge, and reflecting the somewhat drier climate of this region, are the dark brown soils, most of which are used for wheat production. Brown soils predominate in the southern, semiarid parts of the interior plains. They are capable of producing good crops with sufficient rainfall or under irrigation, but agriculture on these soils is risky, and ranching is increasingly common in the drier sections. The soils of the Cordilleran Region, as in all mountain areas, follow altitudinal and climatic zones and, where topography and climate are suitable, support a variety of agricultural activity, especially along the coast and in the valleys of British Columbia. Climate The populated southern areas of Canada have a wide variety of temperate climates. The Pacific coastal areas have a temperate marine west coast type of climate, with cool summers in the 16 deg-18 deg C (60 deg-65 deg F) range and mild winters in the 0 deg-4 deg C (32 deg-39 deg F) range. The interior plains have a middle-latitude steppe-type climate in the drier southern sections and a more humid and extreme continental type of climate elsewhere. Temperatures average about -20 deg to -15 deg C (-5 deg to +5 deg F) in long winters and 18 deg-20 deg C (65 deg-68 deg F) in short summers. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands and the Appalachian Region have a more humid version of a continental type of climate. Both areas have a long, cold winter, with January averages about -10 deg C (14 deg F) in the eastern sections and -4 deg C (25 deg F) in the Ontario Peninsula, and short, warm summers with average temperatures of near 20 deg C (68 deg F). Precipitation is heaviest in the west, where moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean are forced to rise over the mountainous coastal regions and bring more than 5,000 mm (195 in) of rain a year to some areas, although average annual precipitation is 1,525 to 2,540 mm (60 to 100 in). Precipitation is least in the Interior Plains, where many areas receive less than 500 mm (20 in) a year. Except for the low-lying Pacific coast areas, winter precipitation throughout Canada is usually in the form of snow, and thick blankets of accumulated snow cover most of Canada east of the Rockies for 3 to 6 months of the year. The sparsely settled northern areas have an arctic, or tundra, type of climate on the islands and northern coastal areas and a subarctic type of climate in the vast transitional area between the frozen north and the settled south. The arctic type of climate is characterized by long, very cold winters, with average temperatures far below freezing and no summer month with an average temperature higher than 10 deg C (50 deg F). In the subarctic areas, winters are similarly long and bitterly cold, but summers are warm enough (more than 10 deg C/50 deg F) to support vegetation growth. Precipitation is generally light in the western areas of the arctic and subarctic regions and heavier in northern Quebec and Labrador. Despite the low precipitation, snow covers the ground permanently for more than 6 months of every year. Drainage Fresh water covers an estimated 756,276 sq km (292,000 sq mi), or 7.6% of Canada. The many rivers and lakes supply ample fresh water to meet the nation's needs for its communities and for irrigation, agriculture, industries, transportation, and hydroelectric power generation. In addition, large quantities of groundwater supply about 10% of municipal needs. Canada has four principal drainage basins. By far the most important economically is the Atlantic Basin, which is the third largest of the four with a total area of 1,756,012 sq km (678,000 sq mi) and drains to the Atlantic Ocean by way of the \TGreat Lakes\t, the \TSt. Lawrence River\t, and their tributaries. This great drainage system forms an inland waterway that reaches inland into the heart of the continent for 3,670 km (2,280 mi). Larger in area but less important because of the sparsely populated area it includes is the Hudson Bay Basin, with a total area of 4,010,000 sq km (1,548,000 sq mi). The Hudson Bay Basin drains northward into Hudson Bay via the CHURCHHILL, \TNelson\t, and \TSaskatchewan\t rivers and their tributaries. The Arctic Basin, covering an area of 1,812,992 sq km (700,000 sq mi), is drained by the 4,241-km-long (2,635-mi) \TMackenzie River\t, Canada's longest river, and its principal tributary, the \TPeace River\t. The Pacific Basin covers an area of 1,095,000 sq km (422,000 sq mi) and carries the waters of the \TFraser River\t and the headwaters of the \TColumbia\t and \TYukon\t rivers to the Pacific Ocean. In addition to these four major drainage basins, a few minor areas of inland drainage have no outlet to the sea; and a small area of the southern prairies, totaling 29,500 sq km (11,400 sq mi), drains into the headwaters of the Mississippi River system and thus is part of the great Gulf of Mexico Basin that lies mostly in the United States. Canada's largest lakes are the four Great Lakes--Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario--that lie partly on the Canadian side of the U.S.-Canada boundary. Other large lakes are \TGreat Bear Lake\t, \TGreat Slave Lake\t, and Lake \TWinnipeg\t. Vegetation and Animal Life Canada has three major natural vegetation zones: forests, grasslands, and tundras. The natural forests occupy the largest area and are classified into three main types. The eastern forests native to the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands and the Appalachian Region comprise--where not cleared for agriculture and settlement--both deciduous trees such as sugar maple and beech and coniferous trees such as yellow pine, white and red pine, and hemlock. The fauna include white-tailed deer, squirrels, mink, and skunks. The boreal, or northern, coniferous forest, sometimes also referred to as the taiga, stretches across the continent from Newfoundland to the Alaska border and accounts for 82% of all Canadian forestland. It includes white and black spruces and white birches, which are common throughout its vast extent, extensive areas of balsam poplar and tamarack, and balsam fir, jack pine, and trembling aspen in local concentrations. This northern forest supports nearly all the fauna recognized as distinctly Canadian, including the moose, beaver, Canada lynx, black bear, and Canada jay. The third great forest zone is found along the humid Pacific coast; it is a dense, tall-timber forest where Douglas fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar are the dominant trees. Natural grasslands, or prairies, once extended across the southern part of the interior plains. These natural grasslands have been largely plowed under and replaced by field crops. Animals characteristic of the interior plains include gophers, badgers, jackrabbits, and elk. Tundra vegetation covers the northern quarter of the country, where low temperatures and permanently frozen subsoil inhibit the growth of most plants except the hardy mosses and lichens. Various grasses and flowers are also found. Trees are absent, but dwarf, often berry-bearing shrubs, survive in sheltered locations. Distinctive animals of the tundra include the polar bear, seal, musk-ox, caribou, lemming, Arctic wolf, and white fox. Natural Resources Canada has an abundance of mineral, forest, and water-power resources. The mining industry has been a major force in Canada's economic development in the past and is still the main force in the advance and economic activity and permanent settlement into the northlands. The principal minerals are petroleum, nickel, copper, zinc, iron ore, natural gas, asbestos, molybdenum, sulfur, gold, and platinum; in addition extensive beds of coal, potash, uranium, gypsum, silver, and magnesium are found. Forests cover about 48% of Canada and are the basis for the important lumbering, pulp and paper, and wood-products industries. More than half of the forestland is capable of producing a regular harvest of commercial timber, and one-third is currently accessible. Water is a major natural resource and hydroelectric power a leading source of energy. Major hydroelectric installations are located on the Niagara, St. Lawrence, Ottawa, St. Maurice, Saguenay, Bersimis, Manicouagan, Churchill, Peace, and Columbia rivers, and great potential exists for further development on the northern rivers as the technology for long-distance transmission is improved. THE PEOPLE The great majority of Canadians were born in Canada, and most are of European descent. The ethnic composition of the population today is the result of successive waves of immigration by various European national groups in the past. Composition of the Population The French, the first to settle in large numbers, established numerous communities along the St. Lawrence River during the 17th and early 18th centuries, and they have retained their language and culture. French Canadians account for about 27% of the total population and are heavily concentrated in the province of Quebec, where they are about 80% of the population, and in New Brunswick, where they constitute about a third of the population. People of British origin settled mainly after the British conquest of the French territory in 1763. Also, after 1783 many Loyalists moved north from the newly independent United States. The British settled primarily in the Atlantic provinces and in Ontario and later in British Columbia. They remain a major element in the population of these regions today, although the proportion of the British ethnic group in Canada as a whole has declined steadily from 57% in 1901 to about 40% in 1986. Continental European groups (other than French), however, have risen steadily in importance from 8.5% of the total population in 1901 to more than 20% in 1981. The principal continental European groups are Germans, Italians, Ukrainians, Scandinavians, Dutch, and Poles. The ethnic composition continued to change in the 1970s and 1980s with the arrival in the large cities of many immigrants from Asia and the West Indies. Indigenous Indians and Eskimos (Inuit) account for a small percentage of the total population but are a major element in the north, where they account for a majority of the population in the Northwest Territories and a significant population in the Yukon. Language Canada has two official languages, English and French, which have equal status in affairs of the federal and provincial government and federal courts. Of the total population, more than 60% speak only English and significant minorities speak only French or are bilingual. About 1% speak neither language. The majority of new immigrants prefer to learn English rather than French and to enroll their children in schools in which the language of instruction is English. Religion Canada has no official religion. The largest religious denomination is the Roman Catholic church, with about 46% of the population adhering to that faith. Second is the United Church of Canada, followed by the Anglican church, (see \TCanada, Anglican Church of\t; \TCanada, United Church of\t). In addition, the Presbyterian, Lutheran, and Baptist churches have substantial memberships. Jews make up about 1% of the population. Demography Most of Canada's people live in the southern part of the country, in an elongated, discontinuous belt of settlement parallel to the U.S.-Canada border. The most populous provinces are Ontario, with 36% of the population in 1986; Quebec, with 26%; and British Columbia, with 11%. About three-quarters of Canada's population are classified as urban. Ontario is the most urbanized of the provinces, with about 80% of its population living in urban areas. Prince Edward Island is the least urbanized, with less than 40% of the population in urban areas. Canada's largest metropolitan areas (1986 census) are \TToronto\t (3,427,168) and \TMontreal\t (2,921,357). \TVancouver\t ranks third (1,380,729), followed by metropolitan \TOttawa\t (including Hull), \TEdmonton\t, \TCalgary\t, \TWinnipeg\t, \TQuebec\t, and \THamilton\t, each with more than 500,000 residents. Farm dwellers accounted for only 4.3% of the nation's total population in the 1981 census. Since 1851, when the first census was taken, Canada's population has increased more than tenfold, from 2.44 million in 1851 to an estimated 26,600,000 in 1990. Despite continuing immigration in every decade since 1851, the dominant components of this growth have been natural increase and a falling death rate. The peak growth decades were 1851-61, 1900-11, and 1951-61, when the annual growth rate was close to 3%. The growth rate for the period 1981-86 was less than 1% per year. Alberta grew by 6.1% from 1981 and 1986, the highest rate among the provinces. Canada is one of the world's most sparsely populated nations, with an average population density of 2.9 persons per sq km (7.5 per sq mi). This overall figure is misleading, however, and obscures the fact that nine-tenths of the country is virtually uninhabited and the population is concentrated in the other one-tenth. The most densely populated province is Prince Edward Island, with 22 persons per sq km (58 per sq mi). Education and Health Each of the provinces and territories administers its own educational system. Schools are operated by local education authorities and generally offer 6 to 8 years of elementary and 3 to 5 years of secondary schooling. Schools for Roman Catholic students, known as separate schools, are publicly maintained by the provinces of Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. A dual public-school system for both Protestants and Roman Catholics is maintained by the province of Quebec. Canada has 186 community colleges and related institutions that offer technical and vocational training, and 65 universities and four-year colleges. Among the largest universities are the University of Toronto (Toronto), University of British Columbia (Vancouver), University of Alberta (Edmonton), McGill University (Montreal), and the University of Manitoba (Winnipeg), in all of which the language of instruction is English. The largest French-language universities are the Universite de Montreal, Laval Universite, and the Universite du Quebec. (See also \TCanadian education\t.) Health services are the concern of the provincial governments, conforming to certain national standards. All participate in the national insurance program, which supplies comprehensive coverage of all required services rendered by a physician or surgeon. Hospital insurance programs operated by the provinces cover 99% of the population. The Canadian Health Act of 1984 consolidated original federal health insurance laws and clarified the national standards that the provinces must uphold in order to be eligible for federal health contributions. In 1985 the leading cause of death in Canada was heart disease, followed by cancer, respiratory disease, cerebrovascular disease, and accidents. The Arts Of the visual arts, painting has been the most successful in expressing a Canadian national identity. Famous 19th-century painters include Paul \TKane\t, Cornelius \TKrieghoff\t, and Homer Watson. In the 1920s the \TGroup of Seven\t, led by J. E. H. \TMacDonald\t and Tom \TThomson\t, developed a distinctly Canadian style. Other noted 20th-century painters include EMILY \TCarr\t, Alfred \TPellan\t, Paul-Emile Borduas, and Clarence Gagnon. Noted Canadian sculptors include Frances Loring and Emanuel Hahn. Canada is also famous for its indigenous Eskimo sculpture, including much contemporary as well as traditional work. (See \TCanadian art and architecture\t.) Reflecting the dual cultural heritage, Canada has developed a strong literary tradition in both French and English. Among the noted French-Canadian poets are Octave \TCremazie\t, Louis Honore \TFrechette\t, and Emile \TNelligan\t. Bliss \TCarman\t is the most famous of the English-Canadian poets, and others include E. J. \TPratt\t, Sir Charles G. D. \TRoberts\t, Duncan C. \TScott\t, Robert W. \TService\t, and John McCrae. Famous novelists and short-story writers include Louis \THemon\t, Gabrielle \TRoy\t, and Roger Lemelin for the French Canadians and Morley \TCallaghan\t, T. C. \THaliburton\t, Stephen \TLeacock\t, Hugh \TMacLennan\t, Mordecai \TRichler\t, Frederick Philip \TGrove\t, and Mazo de la Roche, in English. (See \TCanadian literature\t.) Music is the most widespread of the performing arts. The four leading orchestras, by budget size, are the Montreal Symphony, Toronto Symphony, Vancouver Symphony, and the National Arts Centre Orchestra, in Ottawa. Other large orchestras include the Calgary Philharmonic, Winnipeg Symphony, Edmonton Symphony, Hamilton Symphony, and Quebec Symphony. Professional opera companies include the Canadian Opera Company (Toronto), the Montreal Grand Opera, the Vancouver Opera Association, and the Edmonton Opera Company; opera is also featured at the Stratford and Vancouver summer festivals. Canada's three professional ballet companies are the internationally famous Royal Winnipeg Ballet, the National Ballet of Canada (formerly the National Ballet Company of Toronto), and the Grands Ballets Canadiens, in Montreal. Professional theater flourishes in both English- and French-speaking communities. The Stratford Shakespearean Festival is held every summer at Stratford, Ontario. Other influential theaters are the National Arts Centre, in Ottawa; Theatre Toronto (formerly Toronto's Crest Theatre); the Shaw Festival Theatre, in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario; and the French-language Theatre du Nouveau Monde, in Montreal. Canada's most important cultural institution is the Canada Council, which, through Canada Council grants established in 1957, supports study and innovations in the arts, humanities, and social sciences. Other coveted awards are the Governor-General's Literary Award for excellence in Canadian writing and the Molson Prizes awarded by the Canada Council for special contributions to the arts, social sciences, humanities, or national unity. The National Museum (Ottawa), Royal Ontario Museum (Toronto), National Gallery of Canada (Ottawa), and the National Library (Ottawa) are other major cultural institutions. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY During the last 75 years, the Canadian economy has been transformed from one based primarily on agricultural production and the export of agricultural products and raw materials to one based primarily on manufacturing and the processing of raw materials. The economy remains, however, still largely resource-oriented rather than market-oriented because of the small size of the Canadian market and traditional ties with the United States and the United Kingdom. Manufacturing and Mining Manufacturing employs 19% of Canada's total labor force and accounts for slightly more of the gross domestic product. The 10 leading industries, by value of shipments of goods of own manufacture, are motor vehicles, pulp and paper, slaughtering and meat processing, oil refining, sawmill and planing-mill products, iron and steel, motor-vehicle parts and accessories, dairy products, miscellaneous machinery and equipment, and smelting and refining. Two-thirds of all manufacturing plants are located in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Manufacturing in Ontario is diversified, with an emphasis on the manufacture of automobiles and automobile parts and accessories at Brampton, Hamilton, Oakville, Oshawa, Talbotville, and Windsor and in lesser concentrations elsewhere. Other major manufacturing activities include nickel smelting in the \TSudbury\t area, pulp and paper production along the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers, machinery production concentrated in the Toronto area, and oil refining and the manufacture of chemicals at Sarnia. The manufacturing activities of Quebec include the resource-oriented industries of pulp and paper and newsprint manufacture; power-oriented industries, such as the aluminum refineries at Arvida and Baie-Comeau; market-oriented industries, such as the huge oil refining and petrochemical complex at Montreal East; and such labor-intensive industries as the clothing and textile industries concentrated in Montreal and the Eastern Townships, an area east of Montreal and south of the St. Lawrence River. Of the minerals produced in Canada, the mineral fuels, which include mostly oil, some natural gas, and lesser amounts of coal, account for 56% by value. Oil and natural gas are produced mainly in Alberta and, to a lesser extent, Saskatchewan. Efforts are under way to bring offshore natural gas deposits into Nova Scotia and development of the massive Hibernia oil field, discovered in 1979 off the coast of Newfoundland, is also occurring. Despite active searching since 1969 and promising shows of oil and natural gas, no commercial reserves have yet been located in the Mackenzie delta-Beaufort Sea area, and debate continues on the advisability of exposing the fragile Arctic environment to further the exploration and development. Metals account for 31% of production by value. The leading metals are nickel (of which Canada is the world's major producer), copper, and iron ore (produced mainly in Labrador and Quebec). The principal nonmetals, which account for 13% of production by value, include limestone, which is widely produced, and asbestos, mined mainly in the Eastern Townships. Canada ranks third (behind the United States and the \TUSSR\t) in total mineral output and leads the world in mineral exports (82% of its production). Agriculture Although restricted by climate and topography to the southern third of the country, agriculture remains an important segment of Canada's economy. Because the large production exceeds the needs of the small population, much agricultural produce is exported. Half of all farm income is derived from field crops and half from livestock. The principal field crops are wheat (of which Canada is the world's second largest exporter, after the United States), barley, and oats. Most of the grain crops are grown in the three prairie provinces. Other important western crops are rye, flaxseed, and rapeseed. In other parts of Canada, mixed farming predominates, with the output of field crops tied to the dairy and livestock economy and more land devoted to hay, pasture, and feed grains. Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick grow large quantities of potatoes, and soybeans are produced mainly in southwestern Ontario. About 75% of the farms in Canada raise livestock. Generally, beef cattle are raised in Alberta and the Cordilleran Region, and dairy cattle in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands. Hogs, the fourth largest agricultural product by value (after wheat, cattle, and dairy products), are raised in southern Ontario, Quebec, and Alberta. Since the 1920s the number of farms and farm workers has declined as farms have become more commercialized, more mechanized, and larger. The acreage devoted to farmland has also declined, with the significant decline in the east not offset by the slight increase in the west. Most farms are owner-operated. Forestry and Fishing Canada is a major world producer and exporter of lumber, wood products, wood pulp, paper, and newsprint. British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec are the leading timber-producing provinces. British Columbia leads in production of lumber and soft plywood; and Ontario and Quebec produce most of the groundwood pulp and hardwood plywood. About 90% of the annual tree crop is coniferous (mainly fir, hemlock, and pine), and the remaining 10% is deciduous. Canada is a leading producer of fish and fish-related products. The waters off the Atlantic coast, including the famous "banks" off Newfoundland (see \TGrand Banks\t) and the coastal waters, yield large quantities of cod, herring, and haddock and valuable amounts of lobster and scallops. The Pacific coast catch includes mainly salmon and halibut. On both coasts, a large portion of the fish catch is frozen or canned in fish-packing plants for export. In 1977, Canada extended jurisdiction over coastal waters to 370 km (230 mi) in order to conserve and manage the fish resources. Freshwater fishing, mainly in the Georgian Bay, Great Slave Lake, Lake Superior, and Lake Ontario, is of minor importance. Power In the early 1980s hydroelectric stations produced 69% of all electricity (down from 90% during the 1950s), and thermal stations (including those fueled by oil, coal, and natural gas, and nuclear-power plants) produced the remainder. Nuclear-power plants produced only about 9%, mostly in Ontario, and, to a lesser extent, in Quebec. Quebec is the leading producer of hydroelectric power, followed by Ontario, Newfoundland, and British Columbia. Quebec's preeminence in hydroelectricity promises to continue for many years after Phase I of the La Grande project, now under construction on the east side of James Bay, is completed in 1985. Phase I will boost the nation's installed electric capacity by over 10,000 MW and produce 60 billion kW h of electricity; Phase II will add another 3,226 MW to capacity and 20 billion kW h by 1990. The complex will be the world's second largest (after Itaipu in Brazil). Ontario is the leading producer of thermal electricity and accounts for more than half of all production. Some Canadian-generated electricity is sold to the United States. Transportation Canada's network of roads, totaling 884,2249 km (549,447 mi), of which 712,938 km (442,999 mi) are surfaced, covers the southern populated areas and the southern fringes of the Northlands. Water transportation is dominated by traffic on the Great Lakes-ST. \TLawrence\t SEAWAY system, although the seaway is closed to navigation by ice from December to April. Using this route, oceangoing vessels can reach the interior of the continent. Air transportation services are supplied primarily by Air Canada and Canadian Airlines International. Air transport is the chief means of travel in the less-developed Northlands. Pipelines are important for the transport of oil and natural gas from the prairie provinces to the principal oil markets in the east and on the west coast. Major oil pipelines include the Interprovincial, which extends from Edmonton to Montreal, and the Trans Mountain, from Edmonton to Vancouver. Pipelines also deliver Canadian crude to the Atlantic provinces and to the United States. In 1985 the construction of an oil pipeline linking Alberta with the northern Mackenzie valley was completed. The principal gas pipelines are TransCanada and Westcoast Transmission. Trade In 1990 the leading exports by value were transportation equipment and other machinery and equipment, wood and wood products (including paper), ferrous and nonferrous ores, crude petroleum, and grain. Over three-quarters of all exports (1987) went to the United States, 6% to Japan, and under 3% to the United Kingdom. The leading imports by value in 1990 were transportation equipment, machinery, crude petroleum, food and beverages, chemicals, durable consumer goods, and electronic computers. Nearly 70% of all imports (1990) came from the United States, nearly 7% from Japan, and over 3% from the United Kingdom. Canada's principal ports are Montreal, Vancouver, and Sept-Iles-Pointe Noire, and large tonnages are also handled by the ports of Thunder Bay, Port Cartier, Hamilton, Quebec, Halifax, Saint John, and Prince Rupert. GOVERNMENT Canada is a self-governing federal union of ten provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan) and two territories (Northwest Territories and Yukon Territory) within the British Commonwealth of Nations. The core of the constitution is derived, with modifications, from the \TBritish North America Act\t of 1867, which was patriated (brought under direct Canadian control) and renamed the Constitution Act in 1982. Queen Elizabeth II is head of state and is represented in the federal government by the governor-general and in the provinces by lieutenant governors. Legislative power is vested in Parliament, which comprises the queen; the Senate, with 104 members appointed to age 75 (or for life before 1965); and the House of Commons, with 295 elected members (as of the 1988 elections). National elections are held at least once every 5 years or whenever the majority party is voted down or calls an election. The leader of the political party with the largest number of seats in the House of Commons usually serves as prime minister. Provincial legislative power, which extends to education, municipal affairs, direct taxation, and civil law, is vested in unicameral, elected legislatures known as legislative assemblies except in Newfoundland, where it is the House of Assembly, and Quebec, where it is the National Assembly. The legislatures of the provinces are headed by premiers, who are usually the leaders of the majority party. The provincial legislatures are elected every 5 years or less. The principal political parties are the Liberal party, whose long-time leader, Pierre Elliott \TTrudeau\t, served as prime minister in 1968-79 and 1980-84, and was succeeded by John N. \TTurner\t, prime minister briefly in 1984 and succeeded by Jean \TChretien\t; Progressive Conservatives, led by Brian \TMulroney\t, who became prime minister in 1984 and was reelected in 1988; and the New Democratic party, led by John Edward \TBroadbent\t from 1979 until 1989, when Audrey \TMcLaughlin\t was elected. Major regional parties include the British Columbia Social Credit party and the Parti Quebecois, important mainly in Quebec. Norman L. Nicholson Bibliography: Browning, P., The Last Wilderness, 2d ed. (1989); Clement, W., and Williams, G., eds., The New Canadian Political Economy (1989); Fremlin, Gerald, ed., The National Atlas of Canada (1974); Heard, Andrew, Constitutional Conventions and Political Practice in Canada (1990); MacDougall, John, Rural Life in Canada (1973); Malcolm, Andrew H., The Canadians (1985); Marr, W. T., and Paterson, D. G., Canada: An Economic History (1980); Nicholson, Norman L., Canada (1981); Stewart, Gordon T., The Origins of Canadian Politics (1986); Thomson, Don W., Men and Meridians, 3 vols. (1966-69); Warkentin, J., ed., Canada: A Geographical Interpretation (1968).