Because of its geographical location on the Iberian Peninsula, Spain has a history that is in many ways unique. Isolated by seas and mountains from many of the main currents of European culture, subject to conquest from Africa, and possessing ready access to the Atlantic Ocean and the wealth that lay beyond it, the Spanish have a rich and varied national experience that highlights and yet diverges from many of the important developments in European history. TO THE MUSLIM CONQUEST Spain has been inhabited for probably half a million years. At \TTorralba and Ambrona\t (in Soria, to the northeast of Madrid) lie the bones of elephants trapped by bands of the early human species Homo erectus. More recent peoples have left bones and tools at many Spanish sites. Of all the remains of Stone Age peoples, none is more impressive than the polychrome paintings of bison, horses, and other animals painted on the ceilings of the caves at \TAltamira\t (in Santander, on the Bay of Biscay) by Homo sapiens artists about 15,000 years ago. An agricultural revolution came to Spain about 3000 BC. Farming and herding brought a population boom. In the south of Spain many dolmens and megalithic tombs have survived, attesting to the vitality of this culture, called the Almeria. About 1000 BC waves of migrants began to bring in new cultural influences. \TCelts\t, people speaking an Indo-European language, entered from the north, and settlers from more advanced civilizations founded towns on the Mediterranean coast: Phoenicians at Cadiz, Greeks at Malaga and Ampurias, and Carthaginians at Cartagena. Roman Conquest During the 3d century BC the Carthaginians expanded from their base in North Africa into much of the Iberian Peninsula. Spanish resources were vital to Carthage in its ongoing conflict with Rome. In 218 BC, at the beginning of the Second \TPunic War\t, the Romans invaded Iberia; they defeated (201) the Carthaginians but had to overcome fierce resistance from the Spanish, especially in the north. Roman control of the Iberian Peninsula was not complete until 19 BC. The peninsula became one of the empire's most valuable provinces as Spanish gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead enriched Rome. Most Iberians learned Latin and acquired Roman citizenship. Of the many structures built by Roman engineers, the aqueduct of Segovia, the theater of Merida, and the bridge of Cordoba are still standing. Visigothic Spain Early in the 5th century the Roman Empire was invaded by Germanic barbarians. Among those who settled in Spain were \TVandals\t (who gave their name to Andalusia) and Visigoths (see \TGoths\t). The latter, migrating from France and numbering fewer than 250,000, were able to dominate 6 or 7 million Hispano-Romans. The Visigoths intervened in Spain as early as 415, but it was not until the reign of King Leovigild (r. 568-86) that they moved their capital from France to Toledo. Leovigild conquered the Suevi and Basques and allowed intermarriage between Visigoths, who were Arian Christians (see \TArianism\t), and Hispano-Romans. King Reccared (r. 586-601) converted the Visigoths to Catholicism, thus further encouraging assimilation. The Visigothic kings built churches and ruled with the help of bishops and nobles. King Reccesvinth (r. c.649-72) promulgated a legal code that was based largely on Roman precedents, although traces of Germanic traditions remained. The Visigothic monarchy, however, was generally weak; because their position was elective, the kings were continually subject to the intrigues of their nobles. In 711 the family of the late King Witiza (r. 701-c.710) asked the Muslims of Morocco to help them overthrow King Roderick (r. 710-11). The Muslim general Tariq ibn Ziyad (fl. 711) crossed over to Gibraltar, defeated Roderick, and--taking advantage of divisions among the Visigoths--began the conquest of Spain. MUSLIM SPAIN AND THE RECONQUEST The Muslims easily defeated the Visigoths and by 718 were masters of almost the entire peninsula. Many Christians converted to Islam, and Muslims of different nationalities--Arabs, Syrians, Berbers--settled in Spain, although their numbers were never great. The rich lands of southern Spain, which they called al-Andalus, were especially attractive in comparison with the deserts of North Africa. Despite many successful military expeditions, few Muslims--or Moors, as the Christians called them--chose to settle on the barren highlands of Castile. Al-Andalus The \TUmayyad\t dynasty ruled al-Andalus from 756 to 1031. \TAbd al-Rahman I\t, survivor of a family of caliphs of the Arab empire, fled from Syria in 750, gathered tribal followers around him in Spain, and, through constant warfare, ruled al-Andalus until 788. Abd al-Rahman III (891-961) ended a period of disorder, reunited Moorish Spain, and declared himself caliph of Cordoba. Relying on an imperial guard of European slaves, he reduced the power of the Arab aristocracy. His reign (929-61) marks the apogee of Muslim Spain, a time of economic and cultural splendor. Al-Andalus contrasted sharply in many respects with Christian Europe. At a time when Europe had become rural and impoverished, al-Andalus was a region of prosperous cities and intense trade. Its goods--including glass, paper, leather, metalwork, and silk--were renowned as far away as India. The Muslim rulers generally tolerated Christians and Jews and encouraged cultural diversity. Science, medicine, and philosophy flourished, especially in the capital, Cordoba. Spanish Islamic scholars such as \TAverroes\t (1126-98) studied the works of Aristotle and other Greeks, which were translated into Latin and eventually spread to the rest of Europe. After the death in 1002 of the dictator al-\TMansur\t, al-Andalus broke up into small quarreling taifas, or factional states. It was briefly reunited by North African Muslim invaders, the \TAlmoravids\t (1086-1147) and the \TAlmohads\t (1147-1212), who sought to instill a more fanatic brand of Islam in the native Moors. Despite temporary successes, however, Muslim Spain was already on the defensive. Rise of the Christian Kingdoms The few Christian enclaves that the Muslims allowed to survive in the mountainous regions of the north had meanwhile grown into powerful kingdoms. In \TAsturias\t, on the Bay of Biscay, a group of Visigoth nobles elected Pelayo (r. c.718-37) their king. Leading a band of mountaineers, Pelayo even defeated (c.722) a Muslim army--a victory that was later hailed as the beginning of the Reconquest of Spain. Alfonso I (c.693-757, r. 739-57) added Galicia to the Asturian domains. His successors pushed south into Leon and beyond, and the discovery (c.815) of the alleged tomb of Saint James at \TSantiago\t de Compostela enhanced Asturian prestige. In the northeast of the peninsula, Frankish warriors under \TCharlemagne\t established the Spanish March, embryo of a future Catalonia, with strong links to France and a Mediterranean focus. Between this region and Asturias the kingdom of \TNavarre\t rapidly rose to prominence in the 10th century. Enriched by contacts with France and the passage of pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela, King \TSancho III\t, the Great, of Navarre briefly ruled (1000-35) all Christian Spain, although his empire was later divided among his four sons. Under Sancho European influences--such as the Cluniac monastic reform and feudalism--were able to permeate Spanish society. Most significant in laying the foundations of modern Spain were Aragon and Castile. Aragon became an independent kingdom when Ramiro I (r. 1035-63) received it from his father, Sancho the Great. Temporarily united (1076-1134) with Navarre, Aragon expanded its territory at the expense of the Moors, and in 1137 marriage added mercantile Catalonia. Thereafter, while the two regions remained distinct, they were linked under the crown of Aragon. The Aragonese kings carried out an aggressive foreign policy, extending their rule to the Balearic Islands (1230-86), Valencia (1238), and, at different periods, to Sardinia, Sicily, and Naples. Aragon eventually adopted the Mediterranean orientation of Barcelona (Catalonia), but Castile, situated on the La Mancha tableland in the center of the peninsula, provided the central driving force for the Christian Reconquest. Originally an autonomous county subject to the kingdom of Leon, Castile lay on the frontier with Islam, where a warlike, dynamic society developed in which warriors, such as \TEl Cid\t Campeador, could achieve great power and wealth. After the death of Sancho the Great, Castile was united (1037-65, 1072-1157) with Leon in a subordinate relationship, but by 1188, King Alfonso VIII (1155-1214, r. 1158-1214) had asserted Castilian superiority. At that time Castile had already pushed the frontier far to the south and was identified in the rest of Europe as Spain; foreigners called its language Spanish. The Castilians adopted an intense Christianity. When added to the fanaticism of the Almoravid enemy, this devotion transformed the Reconquest, once fought for the Visigothic ideal of peninsular unity, into a religious crusade. Taking advantage of Moorish divisions, Castile, supported by Aragon and Navarre, decisively defeated (1212) the Almohads at Navas de Tolosa. More victories followed, and by 1248 only Granada was in Muslim hands. Although the Muslim kingdom of Granada was weak and paid tribute to Castile, Muslim invasions from North Africa continued to threaten Christian Spain until the Reconquest was completed with the taking of Granada in 1492. During the 14th and 15th centuries, Aragon and Castile became more involved in European affairs, including the Hundred Years' War, and fought against each other and Portugal, a separate kingdom since 1112, and Navarre. The Castilian monarchy was internally weakened by its nobles, who sought to gain perpetual feudal privileges for themselves. In this struggle the crown could usually depend on the support of the towns, which had representatives sitting in the parliament (Cortes) and military associations (hermandades) policing the countryside. Ultimately, however, the monarchy was able to subject the clergy, towns, and even the great nobility to its will. SPAIN DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY Spanish unity, although it would continue to be threatened by regionalist sentiment, was dynastically if not administratively settled before 1500. The Reign of the "Catholic Kings" By a chance of dynastic fortune--the accession of \TIsabella I\t to the throne of Castile in 1474 and of her husband \TFerdinand II\t to that of Aragon in 1479--the two most important kingdoms of Spain were joined. The "Catholic kings," as they are known, were exceptionally gifted, Isabella in internal politics and Ferdinand in foreign policy. Isabella sought to centralize power in her hands, using the church as her instrument. In 1480 the Spanish \TInquisition\t began interrogating suspected heretics and converted Jews, whose financial activities had made them unpopular; in 1492 all Jews were expelled from Spain. The Inquisition thus helped identify Spain with orthodox Catholicism, contributing to the growth of national feeling. Also in 1492, Granada was conquered, ending the Reconquest, and Christopher \TColumbus\t discovered America. Ferdinand, meanwhile, had turned his attention to the conquest of Naples and to disputes with France over the control of Italy. In addition, he added Navarre and territories on the French border to the family's domains. Upon his death in 1516--Isabella had died in 1504--both of their crowns went to their grandson Charles I. The Habsburg Monarchs Hardly had Charles set foot in his new kingdoms when he was elected Holy Roman Emperor \TCharles V\t and departed for Germany. For the next two centuries the fate of Spain was tied to that of the \THabsburg\t dynasty. Charles spent most of his life defending his scattered domains against French, Turkish, and Protestant enemies. At the beginning of his reign, his foreignness--in terms of his upbringing, advisors, and interests--made him unpopular in Spain. Later, however, Charles was able to win the loyalty of his subjects despite his long absences from Spain. He also adopted his grandparents' ideals of Catholic unity and imperial conquest, financed by wealth from the New World. He was backed in these goals by the \TJesuits\t, founded in 1540 by Saint \TIgnatius Loyola\t. Columbus's discoveries were followed by Hernan \Tcortes\t's conquest of Mexico (1519-21) and Francisco \TPizarro\t's of Peru (1531-33). The resulting influx of gold and silver from America, however, tended to undermine Spain's domestic industry, encouraging not only inflation but also a spirit that valued bravery and piety over hard work. Taxation and warfare also contributed to the Castilian economy. Charles realized this situation when he abdicated in 1555-56, leaving Spain to his son, Philip II, and his German dominions to his brother, later Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I. Nonetheless, the wealth of the New World was sufficient to make Spain the greatest European power of the age. Philip II, though hated by Spain's enemies, was enormously popular among his people. Although brilliant, he often confused the interests of Spain with the defense of Catholic purity, and his intransigence entangled Spain in ruinous wars in the Netherlands (see \TDutch Revolt\t). In 1580, Philip acquired Portugal with all its possessions. This union, far from strengthening the empire, only brought upon the Portuguese colonies and sea routes the attacks of Spain's Dutch and English enemies and increased Portuguese hostility toward the king. Philip's reign was marked by two crucial naval encounters. After a century of advances, the Ottoman Empire was stopped in 1571 at the Battle of \TLepanto\t by \TJohn of Austria\t, Philip's half brother. The victory temporarily crippled Turkish sea power and greatly boosted the morale of Christian Europe. In 1588, in retaliation for English interference in the Netherlands, Philip attempted to invade England with his "invincible" \TSpanish Armada\t, which was destroyed by storms and English ships. SPAIN 1598-1814 When the 17th century began, Spain was at the peak of its cultural splendor, epitomized by Miguel de \TCervantes\t and Lope de \TVega\t in literature and \TEl Greco\t and Diego \TVelazquez\t in art. Spanish military power and diplomacy were still feared and respected. By the end of the century, however, the country's economic and political power had declined drastically, and the cultural leadership of Europe had passed to France. Decline of Spanish Glory Spain's downfall was due in part to a succession of unfit kings whose favorites brought mismanagement and corruption into government. \TPhilip III\t (r. 1598-1621) was pious but lazy and left the work of government to his favorite, the duque de Lerma (1553-1625). The productive \TMoriscos\t (converted Muslims) were expelled, many people entered religious orders, and others went off to war or to America. On the other hand, a truce (1609) with the Netherlands and peace with England (1604) were achieved. Lerma's successors, however, dragged Spain into the \TThirty Years' War\t (1618-48). Under \TPhilip IV\t (r. 1621-65), a notable patron of the arts, the brilliant but tactless conde-duque de \TOlivares\t prosecuted the war strenuously. The Spanish won spectacular victories early in the war, but after the Battle of Rocroi (1643), French arms confirmed Spain's military decline. Meanwhile, Olivares's centralizing efforts led to rebellions in 1640 in Portugal and Catalonia. Portugal regained its independence, and Catalonia came under French control until 1652. Habsburg rule ended in Spain with the infirm \TCharles II\t, whose reign (1665-1700) was marked by domestic and foreign intrigue and economic collapse. In order to preserve what remained of his empire, Charles named as his heir the grandson of the French king, Louis XIV. The Spanish Bourbons The 18th century opened with the War of the \TSpanish Succession\t (1701-13), by which Louis acquired some Spanish territory and put his grandson, who became \TPhilip V\t, on the throne against English and Dutch opposition. The early Bourbons--Philip (r. 1700-46), \TFerdinand VI\t (r. 1746-59), and \TCharles III\t (r. 1759-88)--were more capable than their recent Habsburg predecessors and more discriminating in choosing their chief ministers. Government administration became more rationalized and centralized, and greater attention was given to fostering economic development. By midcentury Spain had experienced considerable population increase and relative prosperity. The Bourbons also quickly achieved what Olivares had long pursued: the destruction of the special privileges enjoyed by Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. Spain had become a union of provinces instead of a collection of kingdoms. With the introduction of \TEnlightenment\t ideas--particularly under Charles III--came anticlericalism and pressures for secularization. In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from the empire. At the same time the powers of the Inquisition were reduced. The importance of French intellectual and cultural influences did not, however, imply Spanish subservience to French foreign policy. Philip's marriage to an Italian, Elizabeth \TFarnese\t, soon led to territorial ambitions in Italy, almost constant warfare, and the departure of French advisors. Ferdinand, in contrast, brought peace by remaining neutral in Anglo-French conflicts, appointing Spanish advisors, and devoting his administration to the task of economic recovery. Charles, a prime example of an enlightened despot, paid considerable attention to the American empire, even establishing imperial free trade in 1778. He was convinced, though, that England was the major threat to Spanish America and formed a family compact with France, thus involving his country in the \TSeven Years' War\t (1756-63) and the \TAmerican Revolution\t (1776-83). These wars brought negligible territorial results, but the latter conflict set a dangerous example for Spain's own colonial subjects. The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period \TCharles IV\t (r. 1788-1808), a weak and unintelligent man, was dominated by Manuel de \TGodoy\t, his wife's lover and his prime minister after 1792. When the French Revolution started in 1789 the frightened government tried to seal Spain off from revolutionary ideas and stopped all reform plans. In 1793, Spain, having joined the aristocratic crusade against France, was crushed and made an alliance with the French. By 1796 it was essentially a French satellite. Besides subsidizing costly French wars, Spain suffered from English attacks on its empire and shipping, and a Franco-Spanish fleet was destroyed by the British at the Battle of \TTrafalgar\t in 1805. \TNapoleon I\t persuaded Godoy in 1807 to allow French troops to cross Spain in order to conquer Portugal. Aristocratic and popular resentment turned against Godoy and Charles. In March 1808 a riot, stirred up by Charles's son, forced the king to abdicate in favor of this son, who took the throne as \TFerdinand VII\t. In May, Napoleon induced Charles and Ferdinand to meet him in France, forced them both to give up their claims to the throne, and then installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain (see \TBonaparte\t family). The Spanish people rose up against France's occupying army, helping to set off the Peninsular War (see \TNapoleonic Wars\t). The French suffered some defeats at the hands of Spaniards and the British but under Napoleon's personal direction reconquered the peninsula, except Portugal and Cadiz, by 1810. Continued guerrilla warfare, however, weakened the French, while British general Arthur Wellesley (later duke of \TWellington\t) advanced from the west and pushed the French back into Aragon. Opposition to the French also forced the Spanish people to adopt their own governmental forms in the absence of the king and a large part of the nobility. Dominated by the bourgeoisie, the Cortes of Cadiz proclaimed a democratic constitution in 1812. After Wellington's great victory at Vitoria in 1813 forced the French to evacuate Spain, however, Ferdinand returned (1814) to the Spanish throne. SPAIN 1814 TO THE PRESENT The Spain that Ferdinand VII found was ravaged by war and impoverished by its loss of strength in America; it was reduced to the status of a minor underdeveloped nation on the periphery of a fast-industrializing Europe. Economic recovery was retarded for decades by the lack of a capitalist bourgeoisie and by political turmoil. Period of Turmoil: 1814-75 Ferdinand proved to be a vindictive reactionary whose brutality led to a liberal revolutionary interlude (1820-23), which was ended only by French intervention. Ferdinand took severe reprisals against the liberals. When he died the First Carlist War (1833-39) broke out between the liberal supporters of his daughter \TIsabella II\t (r. 1833-68) and the \TCarlists\t, the reactionary followers of his brother Don Carlos. The victorious liberals nationalized and sold church lands, creating new landowners who supported the conservative political group known as the Moderates. When Isabella's mother, the regent Maria Cristina (1806-78), tried to overturn the constitution of 1837, the army drove her into exile (1840) and in 1843 declared the 13-year-old Isabella of age. During the Moderate era (1843-68) many military men became prominent in party leadership positions and three more constitutions were adopted; the first signs of interest in socialist ideas and in peasant anarchism also appeared. Meanwhile Isabella continued in her attempts to impose despotic rule on Spain, thus encouraging the growth of the first significant Spanish republican movement. In 1868 a military uprising under generals Juan \TPrim\t and Francisco Serrano (1810-85) forced Isabella into exile, triggered sharper conflicts at home, and even resulted in repercussions outside Spain. As the government changed from monarchy to republic to monarchy in 6 years, revolts of Federalists, Carlists, and Cubans threatened to break Spain into pieces. The Bourbons Restored The government that the conservative statesman Antonio Canovas del Castillo (1828-97) created for the restored Bourbon \TAlfonso XII\t (r. 1874-85) rested on popular exhaustion, fear of revolution, and electoral manipulation. In 1876 a conservative constitution replaced the liberal charter of 1869. For about 20 years Canovas's party alternated in power with the Liberals in orderly--but artificial--fashion. Peace combined with free trade brought some economic development, benefiting mainly the Catalan and Basque bourgeoisie, who began giving stronger support to regional autonomy movements. At the same time the labor movement developed rapidly along socialist and anarchist lines. By the 1890s republicanism was again a growing force. The peaceful era of Canovas ended when he was assassinated in 1897. The following year Spain lost its last remaining colonies--Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines--in the \TSpanish-American War\t. This disaster caused much soul-searching by Jose \TOrtega y Gasset\t, Miguel de \TUnamuno\t, and other intellectuals of the "Generation of 1898" who began a reinterpretation of Spanish history. An attempt to regain prestige through imperialism led only to a long, bitter war in northern Morocco (1909-25). A general strike in Barcelona in 1909 gave the army an excuse to conduct a reign of terror against its critics. European opinion was outraged, but even well-intentioned politicians such as Antonio Maura (1853-1925) and Jose Canalejas (1854-1912) could not strengthen the government and were helpless against the meddling of King \TAlfonso XIII\t, who had come of age in 1902, after a regency of his mother. In 1917 a wave of strikes and terrorism exploded in Barcelona, army officers formed military unions, and no governing cabinet lasted long enough to impose order. Meanwhile the Moroccan War situation deteriorated. In 1921 a Spanish army was routed by Moroccans, and the king was blamed. Alfonso XIII was rescued by a military uprising, and in September 1923, Gen. Miguel \TPrimo de Rivera\t became dictator. Initially popular, he defeated (1925) the Moroccans--with French aid--but his attacks on intellectuals, financial mismanagement, and a severe economic depression forced him to leave Spain in 1930. The king followed him in 1931. Republican Spain and the Rule of Francisco Franco The Second Spanish Republic (1931-39) was notable for the intense participation in politics that it generated among people of all classes. This participation, however, was not conciliatory but divisive as Spain became polarized into two opposing blocs. On the right were the church, the army, the landowners, and many small farmers. Aligned against them were workers, landless peasants, intellectuals, and most Catalans and Basques. Despite social, regional, and anticlerical violence, many reforms were initiated during the first two years of the republic. From 1933 to 1936, however, a conservative government undid its predecessor's reforms and mercilessly crushed workers' uprisings. After February 1936 a leftist coalition threatened to bring about a social revolution. A conspiracy of conservatives and officers turned to rebellion in July 1936. In the ensuing \TSpanish Civil War\t (1936-39), the Nationalists under Gen. Francisco \TFranco\t received considerable German and Italian aid and quickly conquered the western half of Spain. The Republicans--divided into Socialists, Anarchists, and Communists--often fought among themselves. Despite heroic resistance, some Soviet aid, and the participation of foreign volunteers, the republic crumbled before the slow advance of Franco's army into the industrial provinces of the east. The war may have cost Spain up to a million people, including emigres as well as those killed. Franco proved to be a harsh but flexible ruler. His regime began as a repressive totalitarian system supported by the army, the church, and the Falange (the official state party). He resisted pressure to set up a thoroughgoing fascist state on the German and Italian models (see \Tfascism\t), and his regime survived World War II by remaining neutral. In 1947, Spain was declared a monarchy, with a king to be named to succeed Franco. After years of international isolation, Spain signed (1953) a concordat with the Vatican and an agreement granting the United States the use of military bases in Spain in return for economic and military aid. In 1955, Spain became a member of the United Nations. After the severe economic distress of the 1940s and '50s, Franco agreed to substantial economic liberalization in the '60s. Spain is now far more industrialized, prosperous, and European than ever before. After Franco's death in 1975, King \TJuan Carlos I\t and Premier Adolfo \TSuarez Gonzalez\t helped Spain move toward liberal democracy. In 1981, Suarez was succeeded by Leopoldo \TCalvo Sotelo\t. An attempted military coup was easily suppressed in February 1981, and a second plot in October 1982 also failed, but Spain faced continued unrest, including terrorist activity from Basque separatists. Early 1983 efforts to arrange talks aimed at bringing peace to that region collapsed in the face of continuing violence. A dramatic shift to the left had occurred in the autumn of 1982, when the Socialists won a majority in national elections with about 46% of the popular vote. Their leader, Felipe \TGonzalez Marquez\t, was sworn in as prime minister in December 1982, replacing Calvo Sotelo. Soon after assuming office Gonzalez permitted the opening of the border between Gibraltar and Spain (with some continuing restrictions). In February 1983 the government announced plans for modernization and reduction in the size of the armed forces and the nationalization of Spain's major private holding company. In May the Socialists consolidated their success--this time by victories in Spain's municipal and regional elections. In 1986 Gonzalez led Spain into the European Community and waged a successful campaign to keep the country in the NATO alliance, but his government was plagued by the continuing problem of Basque separatist violence and by a steadily rising unemployment rate. In June 1989 the ruling party won a respectable 39.5% of the vote for the European Parliament, and Gonzalez called for national elections for late in October. In that election Gonzalez won an unprecedented third term as premier, though by a very narrow margin that barely allowed the governing Socialist party to retain control in parliament. \TDaniel\t R. HEADRICK Bibliography: Carr, Raymond, Spain 1808-1975, (1982); Carr, Raymond, and Fusi, Juan Pablo, Spain: Dictatorship to Democracy, 2d ed. (1981); Castro, Americo, The Spaniards: An Introduction to Their History (1971); Clark, Robert P., The Basques: The Franco Years and Beyond (1980); Collins, Roger, Early Medieval Spain (1987); Davies, R. Trevor, The Golden Century of Spain, 1501-1621, rev. ed. (1954); Eatom, Samuel D., The Forces of Freedom in Spain 1974-79 (1981); Elliott, J. H., Spain and Its World, 1500-1700 (1989); Gallo, Max, Spain under Franco (1974); Jackson, Gabriel, The Making of Medieval Spain (1972) and The Spanish Republic and the Civil War 1931-1939 (1965); Livermore, Harold, A History of Spain (1966); Lomax, Derek W., The Reconquest of Spain (1978); Lynch, John, Spain under the Habsburgs, 2 vols. (1964-69), and Bourbon Spain (1989); MacKay, Angus, Spain in the Middle Ages (1977); Madariaga, Salvador de, Spain: A Modern History (1958): Thomas, Hugh, The Spanish Civil War, rev. ed. (1977).