{ny-jir'-ee-uh} The Federal Republic of Nigeria, located on the Atlantic coast in West Africa, is bordered by Benin on the west, Niger and Chad on the north, and Cameroon on the east. With a population of 115,315,902 (1989 est.), Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa. Lagos, the capital, is the second largest city in sub-Saharan Africa (after Kinshasa, Zaire). Nigeria is a country of immense physical and human diversity. Its climate ranges from rain forest to desert, the landforms are highly varied, and the people are divided into about 250 different ethnic groups. Formerly a British colony, Nigeria derives its name from the Niger River. The country attained its independence on Oct. 1, 1960, but national unity has been severely strained by regional and ethnic tensions and by the civil war (1967-70) brought about by the attempted secession of Biafra. LAND AND RESOURCES The major physiographic feature of the country is the Niger River, which--with its principal tributary, the Benue River--forms a giant Y, dividing Nigeria into three main parts. Elevations of the two rivers are low, never exceeding 300 m (1,000 ft) within the country. The highest point is Mount Dimlang (2,042 m/6,700 ft), near the border with Cameroon. Elevations between 600 m and 1,500 m (2,000 and 5,000 ft) are common throughout the Jos plateau. The principal physical regions are the coastal plains and the Niger delta in the south, the Oyo-Yoruba upland in the southwest, the Udi plateau in the southeast, the Adamawa highlands along the eastern border, the Niger-Benue lowland, the high plains of Hausaland with the Jos plateau superimposed, and the Chad Basin in the extreme northeast. Much of the surface consists of Precambrian rocks, which are more than 600 million years old. Many areas, however, are overlain with younger sedimentary or volcanic rocks. Precambrian rock outcroppings, being more resistant to erosion, form the rounded domes of bare rock, called inselbergs, that are found throughout the country. Younger rocks are found in the valleys of the Niger and the Benue, whereas recently deposited materials make up the coastline and the Niger Delta. Soil types are largely a function of rainfall and geology. Along the coast, swamp soils are found. Inland are well-drained, excessively leached soils that are low in organic matter. Farther inland, rainfall and leaching diminish, leaving soils higher in organic matter. In the north, sandy soils are formed from material blown in from the Sahara. Climate Climate is determined primarily by distance from the ocean and secondarily by elevation. Because all of Nigeria is within the tropics, generally only wet (May-September) and dry (October-April) seasons occur in most of the country; the temperature is always warm. Rainfall varies from more than 3,300 mm (130 in) along the coast to less than 650 mm (26 in) along the northern border. Precipitation diminishes rapidly from the coast inland. Maximum temperatures range from 35 deg C (95 deg F) on the coast, where cloud cover is nearly continuous, to above 41 deg C (105 deg F) in the north. Minimum temperatures range from 22 deg C (72 deg F) in the south to 19 deg C (66 deg F) in the north. Drainage, Vegetation, and Animal Life The \TNiger River\t originates in the highlands of Guinea and flows northeast toward the heart of the Sahara before turning southward toward Nigeria, where it enters the Gulf of Guinea (see \TGuinea, Gulf of\t) off Nigeria's southern coast about 4,200 km (2,600 mi) farther on. The Benue River is about 1,085 km (675 mi) in length. Other important rivers are the Cross, the Kaduna, and the Sokoto. Lake Chad (see \TChad, Lake\t), located in an interior drainage basin, occupies the extreme northeastern corner of the country. Natural-vegetation distribution coincides with the climatic pattern. The three basic types are swamp forest in the delta and coastal zone, tropical rain forest in the humid south, and savanna in the subhumid middle belt and drier north. High population pressure precludes abundant animal life. In the forest are monkeys, snakes, and small antelope, whereas larger ungulates, such as kob, waterbuck, and reedbuck, are found in the savanna zone. Resources By far the most important resource is petroleum, although petroleum revenues dropped from a peak of $24 billion in 1980 to $7 billion in 1985. At present, production is confined to the offshore and delta areas, although exploration continues throughout the country. Other important minerals are coal, tin, columbite, and gold. About 17% of the total land area is forested, and 34% is under cultivation. PEOPLE About 250 different ethnic groups live in Nigeria. The four largest ethnic groups, which together account for more than 60% of the total population are: the \TFulani\t and \THausa\t, who live mainly in the north; the \TIbo\t, who predominate in the southeast; and the \TYoruba\t, who are in the southwest. The \TEdo\t, \TIbibio\t, \TKanuri\t, \TNupe\t, \TTiv\t, Chamba, Ekoi, and Ijaw are smaller, but still politically important, groups. Other groups are quite small. Language and Religion English is the official language, but outside the south and the cities it is little understood. Generally, each ethnic group has its own language, although neighboring peoples frequently speak mutually intelligible languages. Languages spoken by larger groups may have as many as 200 dialects. Islam, introduced from the north during the 14th century, claims 47% of all Nigerians and is the dominant religion in the north. Christianity, claiming about one-third of the population, is dominant in the south, and the remaining 18% hold traditional religious beliefs. Demography Population statistics concerning Nigeria are widely disputed by demographers. The population is increasing rapidly despite recent government efforts to reduce the birth rate. The percentage of urban dwellers is also expanding rapidly. Major cities include \TLagos\t (the capital), \TIbadan\t, \TKano\t, Enugu, Kaduna, Ogbomosho, and Port Harcourt. Education and Health Six years of primary education are free and compulsory. Secondary-school enrollments are limited, schools are generally overcrowded, and teacher shortages are common. More than 120,000 students were enrolled in Nigerian universities in 1986. Health-care facilities remain inadequate, particularly in rural areas. Culture Nigeria has an artistic and cultural heritage unsurpassed in sub-Saharan Africa. Traditional dancing and singing are an important part of Nigerian culture, particularly in the south. Plastic arts include wood carving, the famous Benin bronzes, and weaving. The Federal Department of Antiquities directs a national system of museums containing art treasures that date back to the Nok culture (c.500 BC-AD 200; see \TAfrican art\t). Contemporary Nigerian authors, such as Chinua \TAchebe\t, are active, contributing extensively to a growing body of literature (see \TAfrican literature\t). ECONOMIC ACTIVITY The Nigerian economy is the largest and most dynamic in black Africa. Prior to the large-scale exportation (begun 1965) of petroleum, the economy was still performing better than most developing countries, except in agriculture, which was not keeping up with population growth. The exploitation of petroleum reserves greatly expanded the economy through the 1970s. By 1985, however, Nigeria, hurt by the international oversupply of oil, had a foreign debt of $14 billion and an annual inflation rate of 40%. Manufacturing is aimed at meeting the needs of the expanding local market. Mining and Power Nigeria has about 1% of the world's proven petroleum reserves. By 1985 petroleum provided more than 95% of all foreign exchange earnings, compared to only 1.7% in 1959. Nigeria is also one of the world's largest tin producers, the leading producer of columbite, and also a source of coal and limestone. Its iron ore deposits supply the national steel industry. Electricity production (8.1 million kW h in 1984) is inadequate to meet the demand. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing Agriculture employs more than half of the total population, mostly on a subsistence level, but contributes only about 25% of the GDP. The leading subsistence crops are yams, cassava, and cocoa in the south and maize, guinea corn, rice, and millet in the north. The leading export crops are palm oil and kernel, cacao, rubber, and cotton. The main commercial trees are obeche, abura, and mahogany. Lake Chad is the prime source of fish, followed by the Niger Delta and offshore waters. Manufacturing This sector of the economy contributed about 8% of the GDP in 1985. Oil refineries are located at Port Harcourt, Warri, and Kaduna. Nigeria also possesses two tin smelters. Other important industries are textile manufacturing, food processing and brewing, cement production, motor-vehicle assembly, sawmilling, and small consumer-goods manufacturing. Transportation and Trade The general flow of transport is north-south, a reflection of both the export-oriented economy and the east-west agricultural belts. Railroads link Lagos and Port Harcourt with Kano, Maiduguri, and other points in the north. Most shipping is handled at the port of Lagos. The Nigerian economy was adversely affected by falling oil prices; per capita income declined 50% between 1985 and 1988. Agricultural exports, formerly the country's mainstay, are now of little importance. The principal imports are transportation equipment, iron and steel goods, and foodstuffs. HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT Northern and southern Nigeria (savanna and forest, respectively) each have their own history. Arab traders as early as the 8th century found African peoples who were highly organized, with cities and towns, a trading network, and a monarchical government. The earliest firsthand account is that of the Arab traveler \TIbn Battuta\t, who visited (1352-53) the western savanna zone. A series of kingdoms flourished in the savanna zone, beginning with the kingdom of Ghana (700-1350) in the west and moving eastward to the Hausa emirates (emerged c.1000), which were located in present-day northern Nigeria. In Yorubaland, in the southeast, archaeological evidence suggests a high degree of urbanization by the 11th century. Highly sophisticated bronze and brass sculptures by the Yoruba and Benin peoples indicate a high level of metallurgical skill (see \TBenin, Kingdom of\t). In southeastern Nigeria the Ibo had by the 9th century developed a sophisticated society that was involved in trade and supported artistic endeavors, including bronze sculpture. European Era The first Europeans to visit the Nigerian coast were the Portuguese. As early as the 1440s the Portuguese began to transport African slaves to their own country, and by the early 1500s the slave trade was well established. A total of 6.3 million slaves are estimated to have been transported from West Africa; of these an estimated 23% came from the Slave Coast (western Nigeria, Benin, and Togo), and 42% came from the Niger Delta and the Cameroons. Much of the British acquisition of Nigeria was accomplished by the Royal Niger Company under Sir George \TGoldie\t, and British claims to the Niger Basin were recognized by the other European powers at the Conference of Berlin in 1885. In 1914 the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria was established, with Sir Frederick (later 1st Baron) \TLugard\t as governor-general. There he established the policy of indirect rule--that is, governing through the preexisting chieftain structure--which became the keystone of administration throughout the British Empire. Colonial rule itself brought about changes that would ultimately lead to its demise; an educated African elite began to emerge within a few decades, one that would not long be content to remain as British colonial subjects. Independence and Civil War In 1960, Nigeria gained its independence and became a federation composed of three regions--northern, western, and eastern--each represented in the federal government. In 1963 it proclaimed itself a federal republic and established a fourth region--midwestern. The northern region, because of its large population, was able to dominate the entire country politically. Friction increased, especially between the Hausa in the north and the Ibo in the southeast, and resulted in a military coup led by easterners in January 1966. During the upheaval of 1966 many Ibo living in the north were killed, and, consequently, many others fled to their traditional homeland in the southeast. The coup was viewed by many as an Ibo attempt to take over the country, and six months later another coup placed Gen. Yakubu \TGowon\t (a non-Muslim northerner) in command. Gowan moved to replace the 4 regions with 12 new states (increased to 19 in 1976) and so lessen the power of the larger ethnic groups and increase that of the minorities. In 1967 the Ibos, under the leadership of Odumegwu \TOjukwu\t, attempted to secede as the Republic of \TBiafra\t, which led to a bloody civil war. The war lasted until 1970, when the Ibo were defeated, and resulted in hundreds of thousands of casualties. In 1975 another military coup led to the elevation of Gen. Murtala Muhammed, who was assassinated and replaced in 1976 by Lt.-Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo as head of state. In 1976 it was decided to build a new capital at Abuja, in the center of the country, as a symbol of national unity. A new constitution came into force in 1979, when elections were held and the ruling military council transferred power to a civilian government headed by president Shehu \TShagari\t. In December 1983, soon after his reelection, Shagari was overthrown in a coup led by Maj.-Gen. Mohammed \TBuhari\t. The ruling military council named civilians to many key posts and said it had seized power to end corruption and solve the economic crisis created by the dramatic drop in oil revenues. Nigeria's economic problems continued, however, and Buhari was overthrown in August 1985 in a bloodless coup led by army chief of staff Ibrahim Babangida. He continued efforts to stem corruption and restructure the economy and promised a return to civilian rule under a federal constitution in 1992, when nationwide elections under a two party system would be held. Local elections were held in 1987 and 1988; a constituent assembly also began deliberations in 1988 and presented a controversial draft constitution in 1989. In 1989 an economic austerity program led to riots in several cities, and in April 1990 troops loyal to Babangida defeated a coup attempt by a group of army officers. In an effort to ease continuing religious and ethnic tensions, nine new states were created in August 1991. State elections were held later that year. Ronald D. Garst \TGeneral\t: American University, Nigeria: A Country Study (1982); Graf, W. D., The Nigerian State (1988); Shaw, T. M., and Ihonvbere, J. O., Nigeria (1992). \LPolitic\ls AND \Tgovernment\t: Dent, M., Nigeria: The Politics of Military Rule (1986); Diamond, L., Class, Ethnicity, and Democracy in Nigeria (1988); Falola, T., and Thonvbere, J., The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second Republic (1985); Oyovbaire, S. E., Federalism in Nigeria (1985); Zartman, I. W., ed., The Political Economy of Nigeria (1983). \Tland\t AND \TPeople\t: Abonja, S., and Pearce, T., eds., Social Changes in Nigeria (1986); Barbour, K. M., et al., eds., Nigeria in Maps (1982); Buchanan, K., and Pough, J. C., Land and People in Nigeria (1958; repr. 1976); Damachi, U. G., Nigerian Modernization (1972); Olaniyan, R., Nigerian History and Culture (1984); Udo, R. K., Geographical Regions of Nigeria (1970). \Teconomics\t: Ake, C., ed., The Political Economy of Nigeria (1986); Biersteker, T. J., Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (1987); Hill, Polly, Population, Prosperity and Poverty (1977); Nwankwo, G.O., The Nigerian Financial System (1980); Onoh, J. K., The Nigerian Oil Economy (1983); Watts, M., ed., State, Oil, and Agriculture in Nigeria (1987). \Thistory\t: Burns, Alan, History of Nigeria, 9th ed. (1976); Forsyth, Frederick, The Making of an African Legend: The Biafra Story, rev. ed. (1977); Geary, William M., Nigeria under British Rule (1965); Jacobs, D., The Brutality of Nations (1987); Obasanjo, Olusegun, My Command: An Account of the Nigerian Civil War (1980); Onuaguluchi, G., The Giant in Turbulent Storms: The Story of Nigeria, 1944-1987 (1990).