The art and architecture of Japan bears the imprint of that country's unusual geographic location, separated from Korea by about 160 km (100 mi) and from China by about 800 km (500 mi). This location has both protected Japan from foreign invasion and enabled its rulers to close or open the doors to contacts with other nations almost at will. Thus, during periods of cultural extroversion such as the 7th and 8th centuries, the 14th and 15th centuries, and, more recently, from 1868 to the present day, Japan has seen the massive influx of foreign culture. During such periods the arts produced in Japan have exemplified the adulation of foreign culture, whereas during the intervening periods of cultural introversion imported modes have become transformed into what can be considered to be typically Japanese art forms. In general, the latter display a lack of interest in rational philosophies and, instead, show a predominant concern for highly aesthetic and emotive forms. "Harmony is to be valued," said the influential royal art patron \TShotoku Taishi\t (c.593-622); perhaps this more than any other single concept may be said to lie at the heart of Japanese culture. Early Cultures: Jomon, Yayoi, and Tumulus Periods Evidence of Stone Age culture in Japan dates back at least to 70,000 BC. However, the earliest ceramic culture, known by its cord-pattern wares as Jomon, is now dated from about 7500 to 300 BC. The predominantly hunting-fishing-gathering culture of the Jomon people, which appears to have originated in northeast Asia, produced distinctive ceramic wares in a great number of small communities throughout Japan. These wares vary from the early conical and cylindrical types found in northeastern Japan and Hokkaido to the elaborately decorated, sculpturesque wares from the 4th and 3d millennia BC that are found principally in central Japan. From this period onward a number of small clay figurines are also found, which may be associated with fertility and mortuary rites. It appears also that by this time forms of primitive agriculture were practiced, particularly in central Japan, and that the more elaborate sculpturesque wares may have been associated with agricultural rituals. The wares of the late Jomon period (2d millennium to 500 BC) suggest a new influx of continental influence, notably in northeastern Japan. The culture of the Yayoi people (c.300 BC-AD 300) shows a marked change in orientation and is more recognizably Japanese in character. Wet-rice cultivation and bronze technology appear to have been introduced from Korea by way of Kyushu. As opposed to the robust vigor of Jomon wares, Yayoi ceramics are made with finer clay, are turned on a wheel, and are generally more utilitarian in character, having more casual and at times elegant decoration. The large settlements of the Yayoi people, centered in southwestern and central Japan, appear to have become increasingly stratified under religious leaders. Bronze weapons, mirrors, and bells, originally close to their Asian prototypes, were evidently used in rituals that led to the exaggeration of their forms; the bells, especially, suggest the growth in authority of powerful clans that may have governed large areas. During the Tumulus period, lasting from the 4th through the 6th century, the increasing concentration of power in the hands of the great clans of central Japan, symbolized by massive mounded tombs, culminated in the unification of the nation under the imperial clan. Whereas the artifacts such as mirrors found in the earlier tombs indicate continuation of the ritual orientation of the Yayoi culture, the later tombs contain equestrian trappings and weaponry suggestive of invasion or infiltration by a warlike Mongoloid people from northeast Asia. The culture of the later Tumulus period is most vividly represented in the haniwa clay figures that were set around the center and later the borders of the great tombs. These lively, mass-produced grave guardians include figures of shamans, crowned figures, soldiers, court ladies, dancers, houses, ships, and animals; they provide very literal images of the daily life of this period and, in addition, seem to indicate a much changed attitude toward the afterlife. Mid-6th to Early 8th Century In the mid-6th century, Buddhism and Chinese learning reached Japan in the form of official emissaries and gifts from the Korean kingdom of Paekche. After some resistance from native factions the acceptance of foreign learning and Buddhism was actively promoted by Prince Shotoku during his regency (593-622), heralding 200 years of regular contact with the Asian mainland. Monasteries such as the now-lost Hokoji and Wakakusa-dera were built and furnished with bronze images of Buddhas made by immigrant Korean artisans such as the Tori group. The Shaka Triad (Horyuji, Nara), made in 623 by Tori Busshi as a votive offering in memory of Prince Shotoku, is a fine example of the Korean version of styles found in early-6th-century sculptures at \TLung-men\t in China. Other statues from the first half of the 7th century preserved in the Horyuji include the painted wooden statues of the Kudara Kwannon and the Yumedono Kwannon, a popular deity of compassion and mercy, and the Four Celestial Kings, guardians of the four directions and protectors of the state. In the latter half of the 7th and the early 8th century contact with China became more frequent, and the more refined and elegant sculptural styles of early-7th-century China are reflected in works such as the Tachibana Shrine (c.710; Horyuji, Nara). In this sculpture the complex iconography of Amida, the Buddha of the Western Paradise, is expressed in the triad of Amida and two bodhisattvas seated on lotus pedestals rising from a pond; behind them is a low-relief bronze screen depicting a tranquil scene of the souls reborn in the Western Paradise. Nara Period (710-784) With the establishment in 710 of the new capital of \TNara\t, modeled after Ch'ang-an, the Chinese capital during the T'ang dynasty (618-907), the building of temple-monasteries reached a peak. Older temples such as the Yakushiji were rebuilt in the new site; the Horyuji, burned in 670 and rebuilt shortly afterward, was equipped with huge mural paintings in its Golden Hall, and many new temples were constructed. Dominant among them was the great Todaiji, whose colossal Great Buddha, or Daibutsu, a cast bronze image more than 16 m (53 ft) high, was completed in a grand opening ceremony in 752. By contrast with the more introspective design of 7th-century temples in which a five-storied \Tpagoda\t had often occupied the central place, the centerpiece in the Todaiji is the great Golden Buddha Hall, now flanked by twin pagodas placed like watchtowers at the outer edges of the expansive courtyard. Resembling Chinese palaces, the compound was evidently designed to impress contemporaries as a symbol of the divine power of the emperor in his role as leading delegate of the Roshana (all-powerful) Buddha. Buddhist sculptures in such buildings, executed in bronze, painted clay, and dry lacquer, closely reflect Chinese prototypes in their vigorous blend of ideal and real forms; this is especially notable in the statues of guardian deities that often surrounded the central images on the altar. Other important relics of this period are the household effects of Emperor Shomu, dedicated by his wife to the Todaiji and stored in the temple storehouse known as the Shosoin in 756. These decorated objects, mostly Chinese imports, provide rich testimony of the cosmopolitan arts of T'ang China, reflecting T'ang contact with the Eastern Mediterranean, Persia, India, and Central Asia. Early Heian Period (784-897) The early Heian period, named after the new capital at Heian-kyo (\TKyoto\t), was strongly influenced by the introduction of esoteric Buddhism, or Mikkyo. Monasteries of the Tendai and Shingon sects were built outside the capital, often in remote locations such as Mt. Koya. The pantheon of esoteric deities that were represented in sculpture and painting led to a new burst of energy in the arts. \Tmandala\t paintings, representations in diagram form of esoteric doctrines concerning the inseparable nature of the physical and spiritual universe, were executed on huge silk hangings, either drawn in gold and silver line or painted in a rich variety of colors. Groups of deities derived from the mandalas were represented in sculptural form within certain halls. Sculpture tended to be made from a single block of wood and became heavier and more sensuous in appearance, emphasizing solemnity and spiritual force. Among the deities favored for individual paintings, the images of the ferocious Fudo and the Five Mighty Bodhisattvas were worshiped individually or in groups of five. Late Heian Period (897-1185) During the late Heian period, also called the Fujiwara period, \TPure Land Buddhism\t arose. This sect, with its beatific visions of the Western Paradise governed by the Buddha Amida, proved more attractive than the esoteric Buddhist sects to the aesthetic and pleasure-oriented Heian courtiers. Paintings centered attention on the welcoming figure of Amida and his heavenly troupe of music-making bodhisattvas coming to carry the believer to paradise at the moment of death. The same group was represented in sculptural form, now using a multiblock technique in wood that allowed for greater refinement of execution. The Hoodo or Phoenix Hall of the Byodoin temple at Uji, completed (1053) with sculpture by \TJocho\t and his studio, is a fine example of a Heian villagarden transformed into an enchanting image of paradise on earth. The greatest achievement of the late Heian period may be said to lie in the development of native traditions in secular painting and \Tcalligraphy\t. Satiated with deep drafts from the fount of T'ang culture during the Nara period, Japan was ready to sever its dependence on the continent; official contacts ceased after 894, and thereafter native traditions rapidly bloomed. During this period the term yamato-e ("paintings of Japanese themes") is recorded in connection with paintings of famous places and themes from Japanese poetry, as opposed to kara-e ("paintings of Chinese themes"). Although works from the 9th and 10th centuries are all lost, an 11th-century landscape painting on a folding screen from the Jingo-ji, Kyoto (now in the Kyoto National Museum), reveals an early blend of the two modes; the poet's hut in the foreground of the Chinese type of landscape scene is rendered in kara-e style, while the rolling hills behind reveal the emotive abstraction native to yamato-e. Abbreviation of the cumbersome usage of Chinese characters as phonetic symbols led to the emergence of the phonetic kana script. This distinctive form of Japanese calligraphy developed at the hands of Heian noblewomen into a respectable mode for poems, diaries, and romances. The ability to compose short Japanese poems, written in a cultivated hand, became a requirement in social exchanges, resulting in the emergence in the 11th century of major masters of the kana script, such as Fujiwara no Yukinari. Thereafter, classical Japanese poems came to be rendered on increasingly finely decorated paper, as seen in the famous Thirty-Six Poets anthology (c.1120; Tokyo National Museum). Heian noblewomen also appear to have originated a subtle style for illustrating their courtly romances. The horizontal hand-scroll illustrations (now widely dispersed) of Lady Murasaki's epic \TTale of Genji\t (c.1010), produced by a team of painters and calligraphers working in the early 12th century, is the finest surviving example of the onna-e (ladies'-style painting). In largely interior scenes with the roofs removed, action is centered on the affairs of the heart. A symphonic array of human emotions, with a pervasive pathos, is conveyed by the carefully chosen postures and masklike facial expressions of the main characters. The inclining of diagonals and the slight disturbance of hangings provides occasional indications of tragedy, and rich opaque colors suggest mood. In contrast to the delicate, emotive style of the Genji scrolls is the racy narrative style of otoko-e (gentlemen's-style painting), in which action is as lively as the humor of the caricature. This tradition, seen in works such as the Legends of Mt. Shigi scroll (late 12th century; Chogosonshiji, Nara), developed from the style of painting that appeared in 8th-century Buddhist propaganda scrolls. Another highly developed tradition of Buddhist scroll painting during the Heian period is that of the animal cartoons, in which frolicking animals parody the popular human entertainments of the day in witty, deftly drawn scenes. Kamakura Period (1185-1333) When the eastern-based Minamoto clan established supremacy in 1185, a new political capital was established at Kamakura. The reign of Minamoto \TYoritomo\t, who gained the title of shogun (generalissimo) in 1192, marked the start of seven centuries of rule by military dictators. The rebuilding of the Nara temples of Todaiji and Kofukuji (destroyed by fire in 1180) provided opportunities for revitalization in religious art. The Todaiji restoration, aided partly by contributions from the new rulers and mainly by the popular fund-raising campaign of priest Chogen, included the recasting of the colossal bronze Great Buddha (1182-85), under the direction of technicians from Sung China, and the rebuilding of the Great Buddha Hall and the Great South Gate in a new Sung Chinese-inspired style known as Tenjikuyo. The Nara-based school of sculptors descended from Jocho gained ascendancy in the competition for contracts during this period of rebuilding in Nara. Typified by Kokei, his son \TUnkei\t, and Unkei's son Tankei, this school produced numerous works of sculpture in Nara and Kyoto. The new style represented a blending of the naturalistic vigor derived from Nara-period antecedents with a humanistic realism that evidently suited the pragmatic tenor of warrior-dominated society. A fine example is seen in Unkei's Nio (1203), one of the colossal wooden guardian figures standing at the Great South Gate of the Todaiji. As a result of renewed contact with China, Sung influence is also evident in Kamakura sculpture, notably in the works of Kaikei, whose style combines dignified realism with aesthetic grace. In paintings as in sculpture, the trends toward greater realism and humanism favored the emergence of a lively tradition of realistic portraiture. The personalities of great generals such as Yoritomo, members of the aristocracy, and even the emperor were fully expressed in the new form of painting called nise-e ("likeness paintings") that emerged during the Kamakura period. New developments in narrative hand scrolls included a focus on the vigorous portrayal of military history such as the Heiji wars of 1159-60 and the abortive Mongol invasions of 1274 and 1281, and on the vivid and sometimes bizarre depiction of Buddhist hell scenes. Another popular subject of Kamakura scroll paintings were the biographies of famous evangelist priests, as seen in En-i's Biography of Ippen Shonin (1299; Tokyo National Museum), in which Sung Chinese influence is evident. The transmission of \TZen Buddhism\t from China to Japan in the early 13th century created a significant new impetus in religious painting. The pragmatic, fundamentalist doctrines of Zen, stressing meditation as the most reliable path to realization of Buddhahood, appealed to the warrior class, with the result that Chinese monks such as Lan-ch'i Tao-lung and Wu-hsueh Tsu-yuan were invited to head the newly built Kenchoji (1253) and Enkakuji (1282) monasteries in Kamakura. With such figures came Sung monastic architectural style and a variety of painting styles associated with the Zen sect, notably the highly personalized portraits of Zen masters (chinso). By the early 14th century, Japanese monk-painters such as Mokuan (d. 1343) went to China for extended periods, becoming the direct inheritors of Ch'an (Zen) painting traditions in China. Prominent among such works were paintings of the free and uncommitted saints, eccentrics such as Pu-tai, Han-shan, and Shih-te. With the advent of Chinese literati monks such as I-shan I-ning (d. Japan, 1317), schooled in Chinese literature and philosophy, scholasticism began to flourish in Zen circles, resulting in literati-oriented paintings of orchids and bamboo by monks such as Tesshu (d. 1366) and Bonpo (1348-c.1420). Muromachi (or Ashikaga) Period (1338-1573) The Ashikaga shoguns ruled from the Muromachi district of Kyoto beginning in 1338. They relied on Zen monks as intermediaries in foreign relations and were equally influenced by their tastes in literature and art. Collecting Chinese paintings and art objects became a passion with the shogun Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), who indulged in elaborate ceremonial displays of his collection, setting a pattern for later shoguns. The painters of the Ashikaga mortuary temple, the Shokokuji, came to form a virtual academy with a variety of functions, including the procuring of paintings for the shogun's collection. The priest-painters \TJosetsu\t, \TShubun\t, and their associates in the first half of the 15th century formulated a national style based on Chinese styles of the Southern Sung painting academy. A notable example is Shubun's Studio of the Three Worthies--pine, bamboo, and plum (1418; Seikado Foundation, Tokyo). This 15th-century tradition of "poem paintings," usually symbols of seclusion in the form of rustic huts, surmounted by numerous eulogies in Chinese verse, gradually gave way to an increasing interest in landscape painting for its own sake. Paintings on screens and sliding doors (fusuma) in monastic and secular buildings began to reflect the tastes of the shoguns. Nature themes such as the popular Eight Views of the Hsiao and Hsiang Rivers, as well as other paintings of landscape and of bird-and-flower motifs, tended to be arranged within a four-seasons format reflecting native Japanese tastes; formal and more cursive styles were allocated according to the formal or less formal function of the rooms. With the decline of centralized Ashikaga power beginning in the mid-1400s came diversified patronage in provincial courts. One of the greatest masters of landscape painting was \TSesshu\t, who had studied at the Shokokuji, left Kyoto before the Onin civil war (1467-77), visited China with an official mission, and later settled in Yamaguchi, founding there an influential school of monochrome painting. Kenko Shokei, after studying in Kyoto with Geiami (1478-80), headed a school in Kamakura. Soga-school painters descended from Shubun's line worked for the Asakura clan in Echizen, and the Kano school, headed by \TMotonobu\t, developed a widely patronized decorative orthodoxy. The works of the 16th-century master \TSesson\t, as exemplified in his boldly painted Hawk on a Pine Tree (Tokyo National Museum), presage trends toward more martial styles favored by the warring daimyos (great lords) of the succeeding Momoyama period. Momoyama Period (1573-1614) The Kano school found its most eager patrons in the parvenu military dictators of the Momoyama period (so named after a grandiose castle of the ruler \THideyoshi\t). In 1576 the warlord \TNobunaga\t commissioned Kano \TEitoku\t to decorate his Azuchi castle with gigantic murals of flowering trees, Confucian sages, and other subjects. Although pillaged in 1582, Nobunaga's castle set a pattern of ostentatious decoration that was followed by his successor Hideyoshi in the decoration of Osaka castle (1582), the Jurakudai castle-palace (1587), and the Momoyama castle near Fushimi (1594). Eitoku and his pupils developed the konpeki style, using rich mineral colors over thick gold leaf to produce dazzling images of flowering trees, birds and flowers, and animals. Murals and screens in this bold, polychrome style were generally reserved for grand reception halls, whereas monochrome ink paintings in a vigorous decorative mode were often preferred for the more private rooms of the castle. These styles were further developed by \TSanraku\t and Sansetsu (1589-1651) in the early 17th century. The drinking of green tea, introduced from China in the 12th century, was initially practiced by Zen monks to prevent drowsiness; by the Muromachi period the practice had become an elite form of secular gathering, known as the tea ceremony, at which imported art objects were often displayed. During the 15th century standards of taste associated with such gatherings became established by curator-painters attached to the shogun's household. In the Momoyama period, lavish ostentation gave way to more intimate gatherings at which the new patrons of art, the rich merchants of Sakai (Osaka) and Kyoto, could mingle with \Tsamurai\t warriors on an equal basis. A simple, mat-covered room in a rustic yet elegant hut within the confines of a small garden became a favored environment for appreciation of the tea-drinking ceremony and the few chosen art objects being displayed. The secluded, highly restrained Tai-an in Kyoto, designed by the great tea master Rikyu (1520-91), is a classic example of teahouse architecture. Humble Korean bowls came to be favored over the more refined Sung Chinese tea wares, and emotionally evocative paintings such as those by the famous Chinese artist \TMu ch'i\t became prime favorites. Increasing demand for tea wares led to the development of the native Japanese Seto and Mino wares, in which rustic simplicity belies a subtle charm. The organic, deliberately rough-textured raku wares of Kyoto, favored by Hideyoshi, are considered the epitome of the quality of wabi (quiet simplicity) that was inextricably linked with the cult of tea. Early Edo Period (1615-88) Early in the 17th century, \TIeyasu\t established the capital of the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (present-day Tokyo). During the early years of the Edo (or Tokugawa) period (1615-1868), a renaissance and transformation of Heian aristocratic traditions was achieved by the school of decorative art and painting called Rimpa. A curious artistic alliance between courtly and upper bourgeois tastes appeared in the work of \TKoetsu\t, \TSotatsu\t, and others, possibly as a reaction against the repressive feudal regime and the ostentatious, militaristic art forms demanded by its rulers. Honnami Koetsu emerged from a family of sword appraisers as a practitioner of the tea ceremony, sarugaku dance, and renga linked verse and a master of calligraphy. Granted (1615) an estate at Takagamine in Kyoto by the Tokugawa shogun, he presided over an artistic colony that produced decorated paper, lacquer ware, brushes, and ceramics. Koetsu's raku teabowls are considered among the most powerful and evocative ever produced, and his lacquers reveal an unfettered genius for design. Koetsu's contemporary Sotatsu, master of the Tawaraya painting shop in Kyoto, produced paper for calligraphy and fans richly decorated with paintings evoking themes from Heian poetic romances. His screen paintings such as the work depicting the pine-topped islands of Matsushima (Freer Gallery, Washington, D.C.), one of Japan's most famous scenic views, demonstrate the lyricism of his masterly designs. His innovative ink wash techniques (tarashikomi) opened new directions for emotive expression. In the Deer Scroll (early 17th century; Seattle Art Museum), classical poems are inscribed by Koetsu on paper richly decorated with gold and silver renderings of deer herds by Sotatsu; in its bold approach to traditional subject matter, this collaborative work well exemplifies the early Edo-period rejuvenation of classical Japanese tastes in a free and ebullient contemporary style. Ogata \TKorin\t, a major heir of this tradition, executed sumptuously decorated gold screens and lacquered objects characteristic of the extravagant tastes of the rich merchant class of his time. His brother Ogata \TKenzan\t produced ceramics that combined dramatic designs with the conventions of calligraphy and lyrical painting. The Tosho-gu mausoleum of Tokugawa Ieyasu at Nikko, built in 1617-19 and expanded (1634-36) by the third Tokugawa shogun, was designed with the express purpose of deifying in perpetuity the founder of the Tokugawa regime. Its extraordinarily ornate decoration with elaborate relief work and lavish use of gold, lacquer, and rich colors provides an overwhelming statement of shogunal power. A marked contrast is found in the classical elegance and restraint of the imperial villas of this period. The Katsura villa of Prince Hachijo Toshihito, built in the 1620s, is the earliest of these, combining an exquisite classical garden with rustic teahouses and dignified simplicity in the main residence. Closely related are the Sento Palace garden and Shugaku-in detached palace, in whose design Emperor Gomizuno-o, increasingly circumscribed by shogunal edicts, took an active part. Such villas symbolize the role of the court, now confined to the practice and patronage of a variety of fine arts. Later Edo Period: Genroku Era (1688-1703) to 1868 The tradition of genre paintings featuring popular life and festivals, typified by screen compositions of life in and around Kyoto, was patronized by both the feudal establishment and the urban bourgeoisie in the 16th and 17th centuries. Out of this tradition emerged the yet more popular art of \TUkiyo-e\t ("pictures of the floating world"). During the heyday of popular entertainment, the Genroku era (1688-1703), hand-colored woodblock prints began to appear celebrating the pleasures of the Yoshiwara or gay quarter of Edo. Thereafter, prints of individual courtesans and of popular theater, or \TKabuki\t scenes, were produced in great numbers. Rudimentary color printing prevailed until Suzuki \THarunobu\t's polychrome prints of 1765 elevated the medium to new levels of artistic expression. His lyrical, idealized female figures were later surpassed by the statuesque geisha type of Torii \TKiyonaga\t. During this period Kitagawa \TUtamaro\t perfected the languid sensuousness of his prints of beautiful women, and the greatest actor prints were produced, notably in the incisive, satirical work of Toshusai \TSharaku\t. Sumptuary edicts prohibiting "licentious material" and restrictions on travel in the 18th century contributed to the rise of landscape prints; the prodigious genius of Katsushika \THokusai\t was expressed in such brilliantly innovative landscape series as the Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (c.1823-29), while Ando \THiroshige\t gave rein to a lyrical mode in works such as his Fifty-three Stations of the Tokaido (1833). Following the printmakers' experiments with "perspective prints" based on Dutch prints, the 18th-century painter Maruyama \TOkyo\t adapted Western naturalist methods to the medium of decorative paintings, founding the Kyoto Shijo school. Ito Jakuchu (1713-1800) combined zoological curiosity with dynamic design in sharply delineated, brocadelike paintings such as Fowl and Hydrangea (Imperial Household Collection, Tokyo). The 18th century also saw the rise of the "southern school" (nanga) painters, inspired by literati painting traditions in China. Early masters such as Gion Nankai (1687-1761) emerged from among scholars serving in the Confucian schools. With the spread in Japan of Chinese painting manuals such as the Mustard Seed Garden, the presence of Chinese painters in Nagasaki, and the influence of erudite Chinese monks at monasteries near Kyoto, the literati movement gained momentum among the urban bourgeoisie as a sanctioned alternative to the academic traditions of the \TKano\t school. Ike no \TTaiga\t's eclectic blend of Chinese and native Rimpa traditions during a career of extraordinary creativity served to define the nature of the nanga school in Japan. Yosa no \TBuson\t, who became a noted master of haiku, contributed to nanga a poetic and intimate spirit more attuned to native aesthetics. The personal spirit of the modern age began to assert itself in the evocative works of Uragami \TGyokudo\t and the uninhibited style of Mokubei (1767-1833). In Edo the passion for Western learning sparked the Western influence on nanga seen in the works of Tani \TBuncho\t and Kazan (1793-1841). Modern Period (1868 to the Present) The determined modernization of Japan during the Meiji period (1868-1912) was accompanied by the rapid introduction of an enormous variety of European forms of art and architecture. Palatial buildings, such as Tokyo's Akasaka palace, modeled (1909) after Versailles, appeared in many large cities. With later political developments, increasingly national adaptations of Western forms of architecture emerged as Japan approached World War II. Sculpture revealed a similar hybrid variety of Western-oriented forms, closely reflecting rapid social and political changes. In part through the insistence of the American scholar Ernest \TFenollosa\t, who helped found (1887) the Tokyo School of Fine Arts, traditional Japanese painting techniques continued to be taught--although by 1896, pressure from the students forced the school to begin to teach oil painting as well. In the 20th century until World War II, Paris was the school to which young Japanese painters flocked, returning with work that was, for the most part, simply imitative. From the 1950s, however, artists have wrestled with the dilemma of finding distinctive visions that are not necessarily either traditionally Japanese or orientalized versions of modern Western art. 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