Europe, including the European portion of the \TUSSR\t, ranks sixth in size among the continents; only Australia is smaller. Covering 10,531,623 sq km (4,066,281 sq mi), Europe is one of the most densely populated land areas of the Earth. It has a population of 665,617,000 (1989 est.), including the European \TUSSR\t, or an average of 63 people per sq km (164 per sq mi). Water bounds Europe on the north (\TBarents Sea\t), west (\TAtlantic Ocean\t), and south (\TMediterranean Sea\t). The eastern land boundary is traditionally defined by a line following the \TUral Mountains\t, southeast to the \TCaspian Sea\t, then across to the \TBlack Sea\t south of the \TCaucasus Mountains\t, and cutting through the \TBosporus\t, Sea of \TMarmara\t, and the \TDardanelles\t. Actually, Europe is a large peninsula of the Eurasian landmass. The eastern boundary of Europe is also sometimes defined as the western border of the \TUSSR\t. Peninsulas, bays, islands, and fjords give the southern, western, and northern areas of Europe very irregular coastlines. Consequently the coastline is unusually long for the total area and is estimated at 80,500 km (50,000 mi), longer than that of Africa. In Norway alone the north-south distance is about 1,770 km (1,100 mi), but the coastline, with its numerous fjords and around 150,000 islands, is nearly 20,125 km (12,500 mi) long. Great Britain, Ireland, and Iceland are the major islands of Europe. The many smaller groups include the \LOrkney\ls, \LShetland\ls, \LFaeroe\ls, and the \TChannel Islands\t. All these islands, except Iceland and the Faeroes, are on the European continental shelf. Europe is complex and diverse in physical, economic, historical, political, and social makeup. The Alpine mountain system is the most outstanding physical feature; it dominates the south central portion of the continent and is the source of many major European rivers. Historically, Europe has held an importance in the world that far exceeded its relative size and population. Many world social movements, economic systems, and political ideas have begun in Europe. However, in the 20th century the continent has suffered several setbacks. At the end of World War II the individual countries of Europe were greatly weakened economically, militarily, and politically. Moreover, as the \Tcold war\t era began, the continent was divided between the countries in the Soviet bloc and those aligned with the United States. The latter received massive economic aid through the \TMarshall Plan\t, and many of them entered the \TNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization\t (NATO; established 1949). Another factor that weakened European world-power status after World War II was the loss of colonial territories by the British, French, Dutch, Belgians, and later, the Portuguese. The concept of economic union was implemented to offset the disadvantages of loss of resources and political and economic power by the individual European nations. The European Economic Community (the EEC or Common Market) was formed in Western Europe in 1958. The goal was to pool resources, production, and labor into one large market by abolishing all customs barriers, and in general to promote European unity. The elimination of trade barriers has proceeded gradually over a period of decades, and is scheduled to be completed by the end of 1992. The European Community--established in 1967--has provided member nations with common political institutions, such as the European Parliament, which meets in Strasbourg, France, and the powerful European Commission, headquartered in Brussels. The eventual aim of the Community is the political unification of its member countries (see \TEuropean Community\t). Somewhat comparable institutions--the \TWarsaw Treaty Organization\t and the \TCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance\t (Comecon) were established in Eastern Europe after World War II by the \TUSSR\t, but these ceased to be of any great significance with the breakup of the Soviet satellite system in 1989-90. The disappearance of the Eastern European Communist regimes, the reunification of Germany, and the radical transformation of the \TUSSR\t under Mikhail Gorbachev dramatically altered the European political picture in the early 1990s. The \TIron Curtain\t that had divided East from West since the 1940s suddenly vanished, and where Communism had been supreme, one country after another began turning toward a free-market economy. LAND AND RESOURCES Geology and Landforms Europe can be divided into two major areas--western peninsular Europe and eastern continental Europe--each characterized by its differing landforms. The western and southern portions have a complex pattern of mountains, valleys, plateaus, and lowlands. In contrast, eastern Europe, including the Soviet Union, consists largely of a stable geologic platform with limited amounts of local relief. The northern third of the continent was much altered by continental glaciation during the \TPleistocene Epoch\t (from about 2,000,000 to 10,000 years ago); the massive ice sheets of the Ice Age left the area only 10,000-12,000 years ago. The mountains of Scotland and Scandinavia were rounded by ice scouring, and glacial debris was deposited in old valleys. Glacial disruption of drainage left much poorly drained land in the north of Europe, and melting ice filled many lakes. The deep fjords of Norway were formed by glacial action eroding old river valleys. The high mountains in the south, such as the \TAlps\t, \TPyrenees\t, and Caucasus, bore glaciers that deepened the valleys and sharpened the peaks. The highest elevations in Europe are found in the Caucasus Mountains (Mount \TElbrus\t, 5,633 m/18,481 ft) and the Alps (Mont \TBlanc\t, 4,807 m/15,771 ft). The Pyrenees rise to a high point of 3,404 m (11,168 ft); the \TJotunheimen\t in Scandinavia reaches an elevation of 2,472 m (8,110 ft), and \TBen Nevis\t in Scotland (1,343 m/4,406 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles. Many of Europe's coastal regions are at, or only slightly above, sea level. The lowest point of the continent, the surface of the Caspian Sea, is 28 m (92 ft) below sea level. Denmark's highest point is below 175 m (570 ft), and this is typical of the elevations of the large glaciated plain of central Europe. Western Europe is fortunate in having considerable areas of lowland plains located between its numerous highlands as well as the glaciated plains of the northern and central regions of the continent. The four major physiographic divisions that constitute Europe are: the Precambrian resistant rocks of the Northwest Highlands; the varied Hercynian Highlands of central Europe; the rugged Alpine system of southern Europe (the Pyrenees and Caucasus are of similar geologic age and landform character); and the recent sediments due to glacial or riverine deposition in the European Lowlands. The Northwest Highlands of Scandinavia and Finland have a subdued mountain topography. This landscape was formed over millions of years by repeated uplifting and erosion, with the more recent leveling and rounding of landforms by continental glaciation. The geologically younger highlands formed by the Hercynian orogeny consist of the high plateau of the Iberian Peninsula (the Meseta), the Bohemian highlands of Czechoslovakia, the \TMassif Central\t and \TVosges\t mountains of France, and the mountains and plateaus of central and southern Germany. The Alpine system is a series of geologically young mountains with sharp peaks and deep, narrow valleys. In addition to the Alps themselves, this system includes the \LCarpathian\ls, Balkan Mountains, Transylvanian Alps, \TDinaric Alps\t, Pindus Mountains, \TApennines\t, and the \TSierra Nevada\t of southern Spain. The central lowlands, which have a level to gently undulating relief, begin in southeast England and northern France and stretch to the east across Germany and Poland, finally widening to include most of eastern Europe. Climate Europe has four dominant types of climate: maritime in the west, continental in the east and north, Mediterranean in the south, and mountain in the highlands. The maritime climate has moderate temperatures in both summer and winter. The temperatures at \TLa Coruna\t, in northwestern Spain, average 18 deg C (64 deg F) in July and 10 deg C (50 deg F) in January. This area also has a relatively long growing-season, except in its northern reaches in the British Isles and Norway. Precipitation of 510-1,015 mm (20-40 in) is distributed evenly throughout the year, although the weather is subject to frequent changes. The winters in northwestern Europe are moderated by the warming effect of the North Atlantic Drift, which is a continuation of the \TGulf Stream\t. The continental climate is characterized by extreme differences between winter and summer temperatures. Temperatures in \TMoscow\t average -12 deg C (10 deg F) in January and 16 deg C (60 deg F) in July. A precipitation maximum occurs in summer with storms caused by convection of air that has been heated over the land. The growing season is short, and annual precipitation averages about 635 mm (25 in). The regions on the Mediterranean coast have dry, hot summers (the average July temperature is about 22 deg C/72 deg F) and cool to mild, rainy winters (the average January temperature is about 8 deg C/46 deg F). Rainfall averages from less than 760 mm (30 in) in the lowlands to over 1,015 mm (40 in) in the highlands. Highland areas, notably in the Alps and Caucasus, have a large range of climatic conditions depending upon their height and orientation in relation to the prevailing winds. Generally, temperatures range from -4 deg C (25 deg F) in January to 16 deg C (60 deg F) in July. Rainfall averages from 510 mm (20 in) in the hills to more than 2,030 mm (80 in) in the mountains. The climate of Europe, especially in the west, is far more moderate than that at the same latitude in eastern North America. This is due to the marine influences of the relatively warm waters of the North Atlantic Drift, which are brought on shore by the prevailing westerly winds. The major air pressure systems include the Icelandic Low, dominant in winter but influential all year, which is the origin of the cyclonic storms so important in the changing weather conditions in western and northern Europe. The Azores High, dominant in the summer, extends over southern Europe and is responsible for the hot, dry, stable weather of the Mediterranean region. The Siberian High, dominant in the winter, extends the cold, dry air of the interior of the Eurasian landmass over eastern and central Europe. The Southwest Asian Low, dominant during the summer, pulls the moist marine air from the Atlantic into Europe and furnishes the precipitation necessary for agricultural production. The Alps prevent much of this northern, moist air from entering the Mediterranean regions in the summer. Drainage Most major rivers of western Europe originate in the Alps or in the central European mountain systems. These include the \TRhine\t, \TRhone\t, \TSaone\t, \TPo\t, \TDanube\t, \TElbe\t, and \TVistula\t. Rivers of eastern Europe, flowing mostly to the south, include the \TDnepr\t, \TDonets\t, and \TVolga\t. All the rivers of Europe, with the exception of those in the Mediterranean region, have a rather even flow due to the even distribution of precipitation throughout the year. The rivers of the Scandinavian Peninsula, the Alps, and other highlands generate large quantities of hydroelectric power for Europe's industries. Soils and Vegetation The complex patterns of soils and vegetation in western Europe are related to the variety of landforms, rock structures, and climates. The soil characteristics of regions that were covered by continental glaciation vary, depending on the amount of sand, gravel, clay, and organic material (as in peat) found in that particular type of glacial deposit. The \Ttundra\t region of the northern Scandinavia Highlands has a predominantly moss, lichen, and dwarf-birch vegetation growing in a thin, acid, poorly drained soil, which is of low fertility. To the south of this is a broad zone of coniferous trees, the taiga, which extends from Scandinavia across the northern \TUSSR\t. It has a podzol soil that is gray in color, highly leached, has little organic matter, and is low in fertility. The deciduous forest region that constitutes much of western Europe has, to a large extent, been denuded to make way for agriculture. Forests are predominantly hardwood, with beech and oak being most typical. This region has a deep layer of brown forest soil that is leached and contains a considerable amount of decayed organic material and is relatively fertile. In the Mediterranean area, the natural vegetation is xerophytic, or drought resistant, and consists of cypress, cork oak, scrub evergreen, olive, and low bushes. A vegetation of trees and scrub brush in this region is called maquis. The soil is often reddish in color, indicating a high iron content. The low amounts of precipitation in this region result in little leaching of the soil, and the humus content is low from lack of leaf fall. In eastern Europe, the vegetal progression from north to south is tundra, coniferous, mixed coniferous and deciduous, deciduous forest, wooded steppe, prairie grasses, and semiarid shrub vegetation. The humus content and degree of leaching of the soil increase southward; thus the color changes from gray to brown and black (prairie) and then back to brown and gray (dry areas). The black prairie soils (chernozems) of the steppe regions are the most fertile in Europe, but precipitation is unreliable, and consequently agricultural production often suffers. Fauna The native animal life of Europe has been greatly disturbed in types, numbers, and distribution by man's long occupation of the continent. Reindeer graze the moss and lichen in the high plateau areas of the far north. Numerous fur-bearing animals such as wolves, marten, foxes, bears, and beavers are found in the cold forest and mountain regions. Deer are common in most forested areas. Also common are many types of small mammals such as rabbits, squirrels, otters, moles, marmots, lemmings, and hedgehogs. The lakes, rivers, and coastal waters are rich in a variety of fish life. Cod, herring, halibut, haddock, and mackerel are abundant in the continental shelf waters of the North Sea and west of the British Isles and Norway. Tuna and sardines are common in the Mediterranean Sea and the Bay of Biscay and sturgeon in the Black and Caspian seas. Freshwater fish such as salmon and trout are found in the coastal rivers of Scandinavia and Scotland. Birdlife is varied and widespread and includes storks, seabirds, ravens, and eagles. Mineral Resources Europe is fortunate in possessing considerable amounts of two of the necessities of an industrialized society, namely, coal and iron ore. Nevertheless, western Europe has traditionally had inadequate supplies of natural gas and petroleum. This situation is changing, however, with the development of \TNorth Sea\t oil and natural gas reserves. The continent's hilly-to-mountainous terrain and reliable precipitation create a good hydroelectric power potential that is highly utilized in the Scandinavian countries as well as in and around the Alpine mountain system. Coal deposits are widespread throughout Europe, with the exception of the Scandinavian and the Mediterranean countries. In 1990, Europe produced about one-fifth of the world's anthracite and bituminous coal. The best-quality deposits are in the \TRuhr\t area of Germany, northern France, and southern Belgium; the Saar field on the French-German border; the flanks of the \TPennine\t \Tchain\t in Great Britain; the Silesian field of southern Poland and northern Czechoslovakia; and in several areas of the European \TUSSR\t, including the \TDonets Basin\t. Low-quality brown coal, or lignite, is found in eastern and western Germany. The major iron ore deposits are found in Lorraine in northeastern France, northern Sweden, \TKrivoi Rog\t (the Ukraine), and the southern Urals (\TMagnitogorsk\t) in the \TUSSR\t. With the exception of those in northern Sweden, iron ore and coal deposits are located near one another and relatively near population centers. Once the world's foremost producer of iron ore, Europe by 1990 produced only one-fiftieth of world output. Europe's major areas for the production of oil and natural gas are the North Sea, the Russian fields around the Caspian Sea, and the northern plains of the European \TUSSR\t. Smaller fields are found in southwestern France, the Po Valley of Italy, in the Netherlands and Germany, and in Romania. Europe supplies only a small percentage of its own oil and natural gas needs, but that percentage increased as more of the British and Norwegian North Sea wells were brought into production. North Sea production peaked in 1990, but is expected to continue until at least 2015. Two other minerals of major importance in Europe are bauxite, in southern France, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and the Urals; and potash, in France, Germany, Spain, and the European \TUSSR\t. A variety of other minerals are mined, including copper, lead, zinc, ferro alloys, and precious metals such as gold and silver. Europe is fortunate in that much of its total mineral resources is located near industrial and population centers or is easily accessible by land and water transportation. Water Resources Western Europe normally has sufficient surface and groundwater supplies due to its well-distributed precipitation, extensive river network, and numerous lakes in areas of continental glaciation. The reliability of the water supply decreases eastward and becomes deficient in the regions north of the Caspian Sea and during the summer in the areas with Mediterranean climate. Irrigation is widely practiced in Greece, Italy, southern France, Spain, Portugal, and the southern European \TUSSR\t. The production of hydroelectric power depends on the regularity of water flow and the vertical fall of rivers. Thus, Europe is relatively well furnished with hydroelectric power, the Alps and the Scandinavian Highlands being the principal production areas along with the Volga and other rivers in the European \TUSSR\t. Also, many rivers throughout the continent have been dammed to supply power. Arable Land Despite the numerous highland areas of western and southern Europe, the continent has large areas of arable land. The countries with the highest percentages of land under cultivation are the United Kingdom, Denmark, the Netherlands, and France, all of which have large areas of plains. Most of the countries of western Europe have nearly 50% of their land arable, except the Scandinavian states, where the percentages are very low due to extensive highlands and climates of extreme cold. Eastern Europe does not have a large area of highlands, but wetlands and forests preclude cultivation in many areas. Forest Resources Two principal forest areas supply much of the forest-product needs of the European people. The coniferous forests that extend from the Scandinavian Peninsula into the northwestern \TUSSR\t are an excellent stand of commercial pines, spruces, and hemlock. The slopes of the Alps and the other mountainous areas of central and southern Europe, containing coniferous and deciduous trees, are the only other major forest resources of the continent. PEOPLE Ethnic Groups, Languages, and Religions The diversity of ethnic groups in Europe is indicated by the large number of small political units. During the nationalistic periods of the 19th century, an attempt was made to draw boundaries around ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups, with the result that today there are more autonomous political divisions than there were 100 years ago. Even though nearly all the people are classified as Caucasian, there are major differences in color of skin, hair, and eyes. Light or fair pigmentation is dominant in northwestern Europe, including northern Russia, and darker pigmentation is common in southern Europe. Most of the languages of Europe fall into the \TIndo-European\t classification, the major groupings of which include the Germanic, Romance, and Slavic families. The Germanic group is found in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. The Romance group is found in France, Iberia (Spain and Portugal), Italy, southern Belgium, the western part of Switzerland, and Romania. Slavic languages dominate in eastern Europe and include Russian, Belorussian, and Ukrainian in the Soviet Union; Czech and Slovak in Czechoslovakia; Polish; Bulgarian; and Serbo-Croatian in Yugoslavia. Greece has a Hellenic language; Albania, a Thraco-Illyrian. A Baltic language group exists east of the Baltic Sea. The Celtic language is found in Brittany in France and in the western parts of Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. The Basque language is spoken by a small group on the Spanish-French border. The non-Indo-European languages, found in Hungary, Finland, and the Baltic states of the \TUSSR\t, belong to the Finno-Ugric group of \TUral-Altaic languages\t; they probably reflect the movement of people out of the Ural Mountain region. Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches dominate in Europe. Protestant sects are found mostly in Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the Scandinavian countries. Roman Catholics are predominant in Ireland, Belgium, France, Iberia, Italy and the eastern European countries that were included in the Holy Roman Empire. The Orthodox church was established by the Byzantine Empire and is the majority religion in the countries of southeastern Europe and the European \TUSSR\t. Pockets of Islam are found in the Balkan Peninsula, and Judaism is common in urban areas, especially in western Europe. Education and Health Europe has long been a world center of educational progress and a generator of new ideas. Three universities in Italy and one each in France and England were established before 1200. Italy and France continued as centers of university development until 1500, and Spain and Germany also developed centers of higher learning. After 1500, universities appeared in northwestern and eastern Europe and European Russia. The literacy rates are very high in western, central, northern, and eastern Europe. Illiteracy is higher in the southern European countries. The patterns indicating the level of health roughly follow those of educational and industrial development. The highest life expectancy, nutritional levels, and availability of doctors and health care facilities are found in western and northern Europe and decrease southward toward the Mediterranean countries. The highest life expectancy, over 70 years, is found in Scandinavia, and the lowest, in southern and eastern Europe. Demography Europe is one of the most densely populated and urbanized regions of the world, with the majority of its people living in cities or villages. Even the agricultural population in southern, eastern, and central Europe lives in nucleated villages. The isolated farmstead is the more common rural settlement pattern in northwestern Europe. Population densities are greatest in the highly industrialized areas of western Europe where agriculture is also well developed. Both the internal and overseas movements of people have been extensive in recent European history. Some of these migrations have been forced, such as the movement of 15,000,000 ethnic Germans into the new German borders at the end of World War II. Other groups have moved out to escape political or religious persecution or in the hope of finding better economic opportunities elsewhere. Millions of Europeans left the continent during the 19th and early 20th centuries, migrating to the Western Hemisphere, particularly the United States and Canada. Others moved in large numbers to Australia, New Zealand, South America, and South Africa. The development of colonial empires during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries by Western European nations lured many people to the colonized areas. More recent internal movements have been from rural to urban areas. Of great importance in recent decades has been the regional migration from northern marginal areas south to urbanized, industrial regions, and north from the less industrialized areas of Mediterranean and Balkan Europe. More than 60% of the population in most European countries is classified as urban, with the highest proportion (95%) of urban dwellers in Belgium. Europe's largest cities are \TMoscow\t, \TLondon\t, \TParis\t, and \TRome\t, in that order. Most countries have one city that dominates population, economy, and culture. Examples are \TCopenhagen\t in Denmark, \TOslo\t in Norway, Paris in France, and \TAthens\t in Greece. The population of Europe as a whole increased by 80% between 1845 and 1914. From 1914 to 1975, the increase was 40%. The highest growth rates now are in the Roman Catholic countries of southern Europe, Ireland, and, to a lesser extent, eastern Europe. Because of the recent greater affluence throughout Europe, emphasis on birth control policies, and individuals' desire to control family size, the annual growth rates are likely to continue their decline. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND COMMERCE Industrial Development Europe was the cradle of the Industrial Revolution, and manufacturing developed rapidly throughout the continent after 1850. Until the 1980s in most of the countries, manufacturing employed the largest percentage of the working population. Thereafter, a shift toward a service-based economy--seen first in Britain and the Low Countries--took place. Urban areas meanwhile grew rapidly, first with manufacturing and then with the service sector. The economic activity of both the northern European and the Mediterranean countries until recently consisted more of processing raw materials such as fruits, agricultural products, minerals, wood, and fish. By the early 1990s, however, both Italy and Spain were major exporters of manufactured goods, and Sweden and Finland were renowned for the quality of their automobiles and trucks. In most countries the emphasis in industrial development has changed from the manufacturing of such primary products as iron and steel to more finished products such as machinery, textiles, chemicals, and a variety of consumer goods. Much of Western Europe now has a postindustrial economy, and a majority of its salaried workers are employed in service industries. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and put to use inventions such as the steam engine and the power loom. Coal was the major source of power, and industry was drawn to locations on or near the coal fields. Consequently, the major urban and industrial areas in the British Isles, with the exception of London, are found on the coal fields in the Scottish Lowlands, in fields flanking the Pennine Chain, and in south Wales. The same pattern was true on the continent, with large industrial urban populations developing in and around coal fields of the Ruhr and the Saar. The industries that grew up to the north and south of core regions of west central Europe were based more on hydroelectric power than on coal. Mountains of the Alpine system, the Pyrenees, and the highlands of Scandinavia supplied the necessary water power. More recently natural gas and petroleum have become important sources of power. Deposits of natural gas were discovered in the Netherlands in the late 1940s, and since then important reserves have been found in the British and Norwegian sectors of the North Sea. Nuclear power is being developed but at present supplies only a very small percentage of the total requirements. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing Many of the world's food crops and agricultural practices were developed in Europe and spread elsewhere. Pastoral and crop agriculture have existed in the Mediterranean region for thousands of years. As the urban populations grew, farming practices became more intense and scientific, and the specialization in various crops developed as transportation between large markets improved. The farms of Europe average 10 ha (25 acres) or less in western Europe, but the state and cooperative farms of the republics of the \TUSSR\t may be thousands of hectares in size. However, the average European farm has been getting larger as a result of the increasing use of machinery. Yields continue to be higher in western Europe, where the precipitation is more reliable and scientific farming methods are better developed. Wheat is a major crop throughout most of Europe. Barley, oats, sugar beets, rye, potatoes, and hay are also common. The low summer temperatures preclude the maturing of maize (corn) in western Europe except in the Low Countries, but it is found in the Danube Valley and in irrigated areas of the Mediterranean countries. Citrus fruits, olives, and grapes are also grown in the Mediterranean as are a variety of vegetables and deciduous fruits, many of which find a market in the densely populated areas of industrial northern Europe. Livestock grazing is common in the many mountainous and hilly areas as well as in the moist, marine-climate regions of western Europe. Dairying is found in all countries, but Denmark and the Netherlands in particular are highly specialized in dairying and hog production. Sheep are raised extensively in the British Isles, and sheep and goats, in the drier Mediterranean countries. The principal commercial forest regions are the coniferous forests of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the \TUSSR\t and, to a lesser extent, the lower slopes of mountains in central and southern Europe. The trees in these areas are largely pines, firs, and spruces. Some forests are found on the glacial hills or sandy soils of Germany, Poland, and Denmark. Fishing is a major activity in the waters along all the coasts of Europe. The most productive areas are the North Sea, the coastal waters of Norway, and the northern North Atlantic, including the areas around Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, and Greenland. Cod and herring are the two principal species caught, but plaice, haddock, coalfish, halibut, salmon, sea trout, and mackerel are also common. Tuna and sardines are important along much of the Mediterranean coastline and the Atlantic shores of the Iberian Peninsula. Norway, Denmark, Spain, Iceland, and the United Kingdom are the leading fishing nations in western Europe, but Poland, Germany, and the \TUSSR\t frequent the waters off Europe for large catches. Of all European countries, Iceland relies most upon fishing, with an over 80% dependency upon fish exports. Most countries are now adopting the 320-km (200-mi) limit for fishing rights off their coasts. This may help countries such as Norway to preserve fish populations in their waters. Transportation Europe has an excellent network of rail, road, and air transportation facilities. The lowland topography of much of densely settled central and western Europe facilitated rail, highway, and waterway development. Even the major mountain barriers such as the Alps can be crossed at passes or have been penetrated by road and railroad tunnels. Because of the extensive coastline of Europe, water transportation has always been important. Most western European countries have large merchant marines; those of the United Kingdom and Norway are notable. Many rivers originating in central Europe, such as the Rhine, Oder, Elbe, and Danube, are large, slow flowing, and heavily utilized for passenger and freight traffic. In the lowlands many canals have been built to connect navigable rivers. An extensive water network exists in such countries as France and Germany. Air travel is common throughout the continent, and all countries have one or more international airports and national airlines. The large number of political subdivisions causes problems in coordinating control of transportation. The Rhine River, for instance, flows through four countries; so an international organization has formed to advise on all problems and policy. Similar situations exist for the Danube and other rivers. The differing gauges in railroad lines cause difficulties, particularly between western and eastern Europe. Most of the railroads throughout Europe are state owned and operated and are generally heavily subsidized. In 1986, British and French leaders approved a plan to build a railroad tunnel under the English Channel. Scheduled for completion in 1993, this "Chunnel" will be a major new link between Britain and the interlocked national systems on the Continent. Trade Europe generates more international trade than any other continent. The large, technologically advanced society needs to import much of its food and raw material supplies. Europe sends a large variety of manufactured products to all parts of the world. Countries surrounding the North Sea are a major focus of world imports and exports, much of the trade taking place with immediate neighbors and the United States. After World War II, the trade of Europe was largely controlled by international organizations such as the European Economic Community (Common Market, or EEC), the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA or Comecon), and the \TEuropean Free Trade Association\t (EFTA). The primary objective of each of these was to eliminate the tariffs on goods crossing the boundaries of member nations, thus increasing the size of the markets and facilitating trade. The EEC consists of the twelve nations of the European Community (EC): Italy, France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. The major commodities flowing into Europe are petroleum, food products, industrial raw materials, and manufactured products. The major exports are machine products and other manufactured goods. A large volume of international trade also flows within Europe, particularly between industrialized countries and the lesser-developed regions. The tourist industry has had tremendous impetus since World War II and is becoming increasingly important to the economy of Europe. In some countries, especially those bordering the Mediterranean, tourism in recent years has grown to constitute well over half the national income. Lawrence M. Sommers \TGeneral\t: Bailey, A., Along the Edge of the Forest (1983); Balfour, M., et al., eds., Europe in the Eighties (1986); Barzini, L., The Europeans (1984); Kramer, J., Europeans (1989); Lewis, F., Europe (1987; repr. 1989); Lowenthal. R., Social Change and Cultural Crisis (1984); Thompson, W. C., Western Europe, 2d rev. ed. (1983). \Tgeography\t: East, W. Gordon, An Historical Geography of Europe, 5th ed. (1966); Hoffman, George W., A Geography of Europe: Problems and Prospects, 5th ed. (1983). \Teconomics\t: Aldcroft, Derek, The European Economy, 1914-1970 (1977); Cambridge Economic History of Europe, 7 vols. (1941-78); Cipolla, Carlo M., ed., The Fontana Economic History of Europe, 6 vols. (1977). \LPolitic\ls: Abel, E., The Shattered Bloc (1990); Bartolini, S., and Mair, P., eds., Party Politics in Contemporary Europe (1985); Enzensberger, H. M., Europe, Europe (1989); Smith, Gordon, Politics in Western Europe, 4th ed. (1984); Tilly, Charles, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (1975); Unwin, W., Western Europe Since 1945, 3d ed. (1982). See also: \TEurope, history of\t.