{fil'-uh-peenz} The Philippines is an independent island nation in the western Pacific some 800 km (500 mi) off the coast of mainland Southeast Asia. Over centuries, foreign elements have been added to the indigenous Malay culture, creating a cultural mosaic that reflects both Eastern and Western influences. Visited by traders from various parts of Asia long before being colonized by Spain in 1565, the islands were ceded to the United States in 1898 and gained independence in 1946. For much of its post-independence history the country was led by Ferdinand E. \TMarcos\t, who was elected president in 1965, imposed martial law from 1972 to 1981, and retained wide powers after martial law was lifted. The Marcos era came to a dramatic end in 1986, when an outpouring of popular protest forced Marcos into exile and Corazon C. \TAquino\t became president. LAND AND RESOURCES Many of the more than 7,000 volcanic islands that constitute the Philippine archipelago are uninhabited; the 11 largest islands account for more than 94% of the total land area. The archipelago extends for more than 800 km (500 mi) from \TLuzon\t in the north, through the Visayan Islands (including Negros, \TCebu\t, Leyte, Samar, and Panay) in the center, to \TMindanao\t and the islands of the \TSulu Archipelago\t in the south. The terrain is generally mountainous, rising to a high point of 2,954 m (9,642 ft) at Mount Apo, a volcano, on Mindanao. Only Luzon and Mindanao have extensive lowland areas. The Pacific floor under the Philippines is unstable, leading to frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity. The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, in central Luzon, was one of the worst volcanic eruptions of the century. Rivers are generally short, swift flowing, and seasonal. Most important are the Pampanga, Agno, Cagayan, and Pasig on Luzon and the Angusan and Mindanao on Mindanao. Climate The climate is tropical, with a mean annual temperature of about 27 deg C (80 deg F). Temperatures vary more between day and night and high and low altitudes than between seasons. Variations between the warmest and coldest months are only 6 deg C (10 deg F) while diurnal variations are greater, ranging at Manila from nighttime lows of about 24 deg C (75 deg F) to daytime highs in the mid-30s C (90s F). About 90% of the nation receives more than 1,780 mm (70 in) of rainfall annually, and some exposed areas receive in excess of 5,080 mm (200 in). The eastern part of the country gets most of its rainfall between October and April from the winter or northeast monsoon. By contrast, the western portion receives most rain between June and November and is primarily affected by the summer, or southwest, monsoon. The mountains affect the amount of rainfall deposited by the monsoons. Windward areas receive heavy rains, whereas the leeward areas are considerably drier. Typhoons are common. Resources Much of the land is hilly, eroded, and unfit for human habitation, but extremely fertile volcanic soils are found on Luzon, Mindanao, and parts of Negros. The forests that originally covered an estimated 80% of the land are being rapidly depleted; areas cleared and abandoned by farmers practicing \Tslash-and-burn agriculture\t are often covered with tall tropical grasses. Native wildlife includes water buffalo, monkeys, reptiles, and tropical birds. There are substantial deposits of chromium, copper, gold, silver, manganese, lead, and iron ore and considerable hydroelectric power potential. Volcanic steam provides an increasing portion of the nation's power needs. PEOPLE Although the people of the Philippines speak a variety of in \TMalayo-Polynesian languages\t and are scattered across many islands, they have a relatively high degree of cultural homogeneity. The long struggle for independence, the influence of Christianity, the use of the Pilipino (Tagalog) and English languages in the schools, and rural-to-urban migration have contributed to a sense of national identity despite the continuing importance of kinship ties. Least assimilated are the Muslims (Moros) of the south, the upland hill tribes (see \TNegrito\t; \TIgorot\t), and recent Chinese immigrants. Ethnically most Filipinos are a mixture of Malay and Mongoloid racial elements, with some admixture of Chinese, Indian, Spanish, and American elements. The Spanish term mestizo is used to describe anyone of mixed blood. The most important ethno-linguistic groups are the Tagalogs, Ilocanos, Pampagos, Bicolanos, and Hiligaynon of Luzon and the Cebuanos, Ilongos, and Waray-Waray of the Visayan Islands (see \TBisayan\t). These groups, constituting about 90% of the population, are predominantly Roman Catholic, although the Philippine Independent Church (see \TAglipay, Gregorio\t) and the Iglesia ni Christo command significant followings. The hill tribes practice tribal religions, and Islam is the strongest in the Sulu Archipelago, Palawan, and parts of southern Mindanao. Demography The population of the Philippines is increasing rapidly (from 21.8 million in 1955 to an estimated 62,300,000 in 1991), placing great strains on the economy and on social services. The birthrate remains high despite government-sponsored family-planning programs introduced in 1970, while the death rate is about half that of the 1920s. About 50% of the people live on Luzon, with sizable populations on Cebu, Mindanao, Leyte, and Negros. Most Filipinos live in small villages called barrios in rural areas. Recent years, however, have seen large-scale migration from rural areas to the cities, especially \TManila\t, the capital. Nearly one in eight Filipinos lives in Metro Manila, which includes \TQuezon City\t (the capital from 1948 to 1976), Caloocan, and Pasay. Other large cities include the ports of \TCebu\t, \TDavao\t, and \TZamboanga\t. Education and Health The Philippines has one of the highest literacy rates in Asia. Primary education is free and compulsory. Elementary schooling lasts for 6 years and secondary schooling for 4 years. Schools are available throughout the nation, but the quality of education in rural areas is lower than that found in the cities. The many colleges and universities (see \TSoutheast Asian universities\t) include the University of the Philippines (1922) and the University of Santo Tomas (1611). Higher education is greatly valued, although the Philippine economy cannot absorb all college graduates. Manila has excellent health-care facilities, some of the best in Southeast Asia, but a shortage of trained medical personnel exists in rural areas. Typhoid and malaria are no longer major health threats, but malnutrition-related infant deaths remain high. \Tculture\t The rich body of indigenous artistic traditions includes folktales, music, and the folk dances made famous by the Bayanihan Dance Troupe. Painting and sculpture often combine Asian and Western elements. Spanish and English have been the vehicles for such writers as Jose Rizal, N. V. M. Gonzalez, Bienvenido Santos, and F. Sionil Jose. Handicrafts feature wood-carved decorative items, embroidered clothing, and Islamic brass objects. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY The Philippines is primarily an exporter of raw materials and an importer of manufactured goods. Rice and corn, the staple food crops, occupy 80% of all cropland. Commercial crops, led by coconuts and sugarcane, include bananas, pineapples, abaca (Manila hemp), tobacco, coffee, and cotton. Land is unequally distributed; about 70% of all peasants are landless. Large landowners continue to exercise economic and political power to the detriment of the peasantry. Land reform has been a topic on every government's agenda since 1946, but little meaningful redistribution has occurred. Many of discontented peasants have flocked to the cities, where jobs are scarce. Industry provides about one-fourth of the GDP. The processing of agricultural products accounts for almost half of all industrial production, followed by electronic and electrical equipment, chemicals, petroleum refining, and textiles. Industry is concentrated in the Manila area. Copper, gold, nickel, and chromium are mined for exports and coal for domestic use. Fishing, forestry, and tourism are also important. The 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis forced many overseas workers to return home and cost the country valuable foreign exchange. Between 1980 and 1986, real incomes declined due to low world prices for sugar, coconuts, and copper, adverse weather conditions, rapid population growth, a huge foreign debt, and capital flight and decreased investment caused by political and economic uncertainties. Economic hardships fueled both anti-government demonstrations and the Communist insurgency led by the New People's Army. Economic growth resumed under Aquino, although political instability later led to inflation and reduced foreign investments. A network of inter-island shipping transports goods from island to island and to the major ports. Philippine Air Lines offers inter-island and international service. GOVERNMENT The 1935 constitution, based on that of the United States, was suspended when martial law was imposed in 1972. The new constitution ratified in 1973 changed the government from presidential to parliamentary form, but this document did not come fully into effect until 1981, by which time it had been amended to place supreme power, including the right to rule by decree, in the hands of the president. Aquino, who took de facto control of the government on Feb. 25, 1986, assumed legislative powers on March 25 under a transitional "freedom constitution." The legislature was abolished, many officials were replaced by Aquino appointees, and a committee was appointed to draft a new constitution. This constitution, overwhelmingly approved in a Feb. 2, 1987, plebiscite, allowed Aquino to remain in office until June 1992. She pledged not to run in 1992, and subsequent presidents were restricted to a single 6-year term. On July 27, 1987, Aquino turned legislative power over to a newly elected unicameral legislature. Local elections were held in 1988. HISTORY The Philippines, thought to have been peopled chiefly by waves of migrants from Indonesia, have been inhabited for more than 30,000 years. Extensive trade with India, Indonesia, China, and Japan developed. Islam was introduced to the southern islands in the 15th century and by the mid-16th century had reached as far north as Luzon. The first Europeans to arrive were the Spanish led by Ferdinand \TMagellan\t. He claimed the islands for Spain in 1521. Native society was generally divided into barangays (kinship units); there was no central government to mount effective resistance. Magellan was killed on Cebu in 1521. The first permanent Spanish settlement was made by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi on Cebu in 1565. In 1571, the islands were renamed in honor of King Philip II and the capital was moved to Manila. The colonial administration was headed by a governor-general responsible to the viceroy of Mexico, but the parish priest was often the only visible symbol of Spanish authority in rural areas, and religious orders controlled education and many great estates. The Spanish came into conflict with the expanding Muslim population and eventually pushed them back to the southern islands, although neither Spain nor the United States at a later date was ever able to subjugate the Muslims completely. The Spanish occupation was inseparably linked with the missionary work of the Roman Catholic church. Trade in Chinese luxury items, gathered in Manila and sold in Acapulco in exchange for silver, was the economic foundation of the colony until the 19th century, when the independence of Spain's New World colonies forced a shift to the cash-crop economy that persists to this day. In the 1880s a nationalistic movement developed, strongly influenced by the writings of Jose B. Rizal (1861-96). He spurred Filipino demands for reform. Rizal's execution made him a martyr and the country's national hero and sparked an unsuccessful revolution led by Emilio \TAguinaldo\t. On June 12, 1898, after the outbreak of the \TSpanish-American War\t, Aguinaldo declared the Philippines independent in the mistaken belief that the United States supported his struggle. Instead, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States. In 1899 until his capture in 1901 Aguinaldo led a war against his country's new colonial rulers. Although U.S. business interests applauded the seizure of the Philippines, the U.S. government declared that it would prepare the islands for independence. In 1935 the Philippines became a self-governing commonwealth under President Manuel Luis \TQuezon\t, but World War II delayed full independence. Japan attacked the Philippines on Dec. 8, 1941, defeating U.S. and Filipino forces at \TBataan\t and \TCorregidor\t in 1942. The struggle against Japan, culminating in Gen. Douglas \TMacArthur\t's return in 1944, came to symbolize U.S.-Philippine solidarity. On July 4, 1946, the Philippines gained full independence with Manuel \TRoxas y Acuna\t as president. After World War II, the economic and social infrastructure of the Philippines was a shambles. Inadequate land distribution and unequal taxation fed the Hukbalahap (Huk) guerilla revolt against the government, which was defused in the early 1950s by a resettlement and amnesty program devised during the presidency of Elpidio \TQuirino\t by Ramon \TMagsaysay\t, who became president in 1953. Ferdinand Marcos became the first president to win (1969) a second term after defeating President Diosdado Macapagal in 1965. In 1972, facing a Muslim revolt in the south, a leftist rural insurgency, and student unrest, Marcos declared martial law. He restored law and order, promoted social and economic reforms (often at the expense of his political foes), and created a political machine that remained dominant after martial law was lifted in 1981. Critics charged that he also enriched himself and his friends at the expense of the country. On Aug. 21, 1983, Marcos' chief political rival Benigno S. Aquino, Jr., was assassinated as he returned to the Philippines from exile. Marcos loyalists were accused of complicity in the killing, which touched off waves of popular protest. The opposition gained in the 1984 legislative elections and a left-wing insurgency grew steadily, fueled by government repression and a declining economy. To renew his mandate, Marcos called early presidential elections, which were held on Feb. 7, 1986. Opposition leader Corazon Aquino and her running mate Salvador Laurel were backed by much of the business community and the influential Roman Catholic Church. When the National Assembly declared Marcos the victor amid widespread charges of electoral fraud, Aquino launched a campaign of nonviolent resistance to secure the post many believed she had won. On February 22, when defense minister Juan Ponce Enrile and army deputy chief of staff Lt.-Gen. Fidel Ramos resigned, huge crowds of ordinary Filipinos turned out to protect the dissident military leaders, and the United States increased its pressure on Marcos to step down. On February 25, after Marcos and Aquino held rival inaugurations, Marcos left for exile in the United States, which quickly recognized Aquino as president. Aquino took steps to restructure the government and the military, restore civil liberties, promote free enterprise, and retrieve public monies illegally appropriated by Marcos and his cronies. She freed political prisoners, announced her desire to negotiate with leftist leaders, and agreed to honor the treaty allowing the United States to operate military facilities at Clark Air Base and Subic Bay Naval Base. Despite popular support, however, Aquino faced formidable problems. These included the Communist insurgency, the weak economy, widespread social injustice, continued opposition from Marcos backers, and squabbles within her own diverse coalition. Unable to reach a negotiated settlement with Communist insurgents, she was also criticized for failing to halt corruption. Marcos died in 1989, but she was challenged by many former allies, including former defense minister Juan Ponce Enrile and Vice President Salvador Laurel, who resigned as foreign minister in 1987 and was named head of the opposition Nacionalista party in 1989. In December 1989, after the most serious of several coup attempts by dissident soldiers was quelled with U.S. military aid, a six-month limited state of emergency was declared. Aquino survived a seventh coup attempt in October 1990. In 1991 the eruption of Mount Pinatubo forced the United States to abandon Clark Air Base, and the Philippine Senate rejected a new 10-year lease for the country's remaining U.S. military facility, Subic Naval Base. Nicholas P. Cushner Bibliography: American University, Philippines: A Country Study (1983); Bain, D. H., Sitting in Darkness: Americans in the Philippines (1984); Burton, S., Impossible Dream: The Marcoses, the Aquinos, and the Unfinished Revolution (1989); Casino, E. S., The Philippines (1982); Cushner, N. P., Spain in the Philippines (1970); Friend, T., Between Two Empires (1965); Hart, Donn V., Ritual Kinship in the Philippines (1977); Huke, R. E., ed., Shadows on the Land: An Economic Geography of the Philippines (1972); Infante, J. T., The Political, Economic, and Labor Climate in the Philippines (1980); Jones, Gregg R., Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerilla Movement (1989); Karnow, Stanley, In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines (1989); Kerkvliet, Benedict J., The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (1977; repr. 1982); Lachica, E., The Huks (1971); Larkin, J. A., The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province (1972); Miller, S. C., Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines (1982; repr. 1984); Phelan, J. L., The Hispanization of the Philippines (1959); Rosenberg, D., ed., Marcos and Martial Law in the Philippines (1979); Steinberg, David, The Philippines: A Singular and Plural Place (1982); Wernstedt, Frederick L., and Spencer, Joseph E., The Philippine Island World (1967; repr. 1978).