Montana, one of the Mountain states, ranks fourth in size but is among the ten least populous of all the U.S. states. Bordering it are the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan on the north; North Dakota and South Dakota on the east; Wyoming on the south; and Idaho on the west and southwest. Montana stretches for about 885 km (550 mi) from the \TRocky Mountains\t and Continental Divide in the west to the rolling plains in the east. The name Montana comes from the Spanish word montana, meaning "mountainous region." Among the state's nicknames are "Treasure State," "Big Sky Country," and the Indian designation, "Land of the Shining Mountains." LAND AND RESOURCES The western third of Montana is rugged and mountainous, and the remaining eastern portion consists of rolling plains. Granite Peak, Montana's highest point, rises to 3,901 m (12,799 ft) in the Beartooth Range near Yellowstone National Park; the lowest elevation, 549 m (1,800 ft), occurs in the northwest, where the Kootenai River crosses into Idaho. Physiographic Regions Montana contains parts of three major physiographic regions--the Great Plains, a small section of the Middle Rocky Mountains, and a large section of the Northern Rocky Mountains. The \TGreat Plains\t in eastern Montana have a general elevation range of 600 to 1,000 m (2,000 to 3,300 ft) and a deceptively flat-to-rolling overall appearance. On closer inspection, however, it is apparent that they are broken by small mountain masses (the Sweetgrass, Judith, Little Snowy, Bear Paw, Little Rocky, Highwood, and Crazy mountains) near the eastern edge of the Rockies and by the angular outlines of mesas, buttes, gullies, canyons, badlands, and naturally sculptured rock outcrops characteristic of a semiarid climate. The Middle Rocky Mountains rise west of the plains and include a small section of the Yellowstone Plateau, along with the rugged Absaroka and Beartooth ranges. The parallel ranges of the Northern Rockies, separated by narrow canyons, form a 322-km-wide (200-mi) belt of rugged mountains in western Montana. Rivers and Lakes Montana rivers drain toward the north, east, and west. A small area in the north central part of the state drains to the north by way of the Saint Mary and Belly rivers. Lands east of the Continental Divide drain into the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean through the Missouri-Mississippi river system, and lands west of the divide drain into the Pacific Ocean by the Clark Fork and Kootenai rivers. Montana's principal river is the \TMissouri\t. Its source is at Three Forks, where the Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers unite. It flows eastward, where it receives its major tributaries--the Milk, the Musselshell, and, east of the state border, the \TYellowstone\t. Flathead Lake is the largest natural lake, and Fort Peck Lake on the Missouri River is the largest of many artificial water bodies created for irrigation and production of hydroelectricity. Climate January temperatures range from -12 deg C (11 deg F) in the northeast to -6 deg C (22 deg F) in the southwest, but in unusually cold years the average may be -18 deg C (0 deg F). Winters usually bring short-lived cold spells of high winds, blowing snow, and colder temperatures, interspersed with mild periods of chinook weather--warm, dry winds that evaporate the snow cover to the east of the Continental Divide. In 1954, Montana experienced the coldest temperature of any state in the conterminous United States when a low of -57 deg C (-70 deg F) occurred at Rogers Pass, northwest of Helena. July temperatures average between 23 deg C (73 deg F) in the southeast and 18 deg C (64 deg F) in the southwest. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Montana, 47 deg C (117 deg F), occurred (1937) at Medicine Lake. Precipitation, concentrated in late spring, is sparse, averaging 380 mm (15 in) over most of the state, with extremes of more than 2,540 mm (100 in) in exposed mountain areas and less than 178 mm (7 in) in the south central areas. Severe hailstorms occasionally strike in summer. Droughts, blizzards, and unexpectedly early or late snows are other climatic hazards. Vegetation and Animal Life Most of the plains are treeless and where not farmed are covered with a natural vegetation of buffalo and blue grama grasses, giving way to sagebrush and bunch grass in drier areas. Aspen and cottonwood trees grow along the river valleys, and stands of ponderosa pines top some of the upland areas. In the Rockies, conifers extend up to the tree line. Spruce, Douglas fir, and tamarack are common in wetter areas and lodgepole pine in drier locations. Higher elevations support a low-growing alpine vegetation, with a profusion of wildflower blooms in early summer. Montana's most distinctive animal, the buffalo, was wantonly slaughtered before 1894 and is now found only in the National Bison Range in the Flathead Valley and other protected areas. Other animals found in the mountains are bobcats, coyotes, lynx, mink, puma, and such larger game animals as elk, deer, bighorn sheep, moose, and grizzly and black bears. Eleven national forests and 20 federal and 18 state wildlife refuges protect the state's natural resources. Mineral Resources Montana has rich deposits of gold, copper, lead, silver, zinc, manganese, and other metals in the Rocky Mountains. Vast deposits of coal, petroleum, natural gas, and bentonite underlie much of the Great Plains. Especially valuable are the coal deposits in the Fort Union coal formation found under the entire eastern fourth of the state and extracted by strip mining. Abundant runoff and snowmelt from the mountains provide sufficient surface water for irrigation and hydroelectricity; additional water resources are available from aquifers. PEOPLE One of the least populated of all the states, Montana has a population density that is less than one-tenth the national average. From 1960 to 1970, 58,000 more people left the state than entered, and the population growth rate was less than 3%, well below the 13% national growth rate for the decade. The period 1970-80, however, saw a reversal of this trend, and Montana experienced a growth rate of about 1.3% annually, higher than the national rate, and a net in-migration of 16,000. Growth between 1980 and 1990 slowed, however; the state grew by less than 2% compared with a national rate of about 10%. White ethnic groups account for about 93% of the population, with Norwegian, German, and Canadian ancestries predominating. Most Montanans are Protestants, but the largest single religious group is the Roman Catholic. The \THutterian Brethren\t live in a number of colonies in the state. The Indian population in 1990 numbered 47,679, most of whom lived on 7 reservations--the \TCrow\t and Northern \TCheyenne\t in the southern plains; the \TSioux\t at Fort Peck; the \TAssiniboin\t and \TGros Ventres\t at Fort Belknap; the Chippewa-Cree at Rocky Boy; the \TBlackfoot\t in the northern plains; and the \TFlathead\t in the Rocky Mountains. Blacks make up 0.3% of the population. Most of the population are nonmetropolitan. The largest cities are \TBillings\t and \TGreat Falls\t, each with a population of more than 55,000, and \TMissoula\t, \TButte\t, Bozeman, and \THelena\t, each with more than 20,000 residents. Educational and Cultural Institutions Montana's first schools were set up in the 1860s in mining camps. In 1893 the legislature established free public schools and in 1897 county high schools. The Montana university system (see \TMontana, state universities and colleges of\t) and private institutions provide higher education. The state's major museums are the Montana Historical Society Museum in Helena, the Charles M. \TRussell\t Museum Complex and Original Studio in Great Falls, the Museum of the Plains Indian and Crafts Center at Browning, the Museum of the Rockies in Bozeman, the World Museum of Mining in Butte and Hell Roarin' Gulch, and the Western Heritage Center in Billings. Historic Sites Historical markers identify the 3,122-km-long (1,940-mi) Lewis and Clark Trail of the early explorers. The Custer Battlefield National Monument commemorates Custer's Last Stand against the Sioux and Cheyenne in the 1876 Battle of the \TLittle Bighorn\t. Big Hole National Battlefield marks the 1877 victory of the \TNez Perce\t Indians under Chief \TJoseph\t, and Chief Joseph Battleground State Monument commemorates the chief's surrender. Chief Plenty Coups State Monument preserves the home of this famous Crow leader along with ethnographic materials of the Crow people. Saint Mary's Mission log church and pharmacy are remains of Montana's first permanent settlement. Ghost towns at Bannack, Elkhorn, Virginia City, and Pony recall gold-rush days. Communications Montana is well supplied with commercial radio and television stations. The most influential of the state's daily newspapers are the Montana Standard of Butte, the Billings Gazette, the Great Falls Tribune, and the Missoula Missoulian. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES In the 19th century, Montana went from a fur-trading and Indian community in the early years, through a gold rush in the 1860s, on to become a major producer of copper, lead, silver, and zinc in the 1880s. After the removal of Indians from the plains in the 1870s, cattle and sheep ranching took over the grasslands of the open range. In the 1900s, waves of homesteaders fenced the range and began farming, but because of severe droughts beginning in 1917, many farms were abandoned. Expanded irrigation facilities, greater use of strip farming and other techniques suited to the semiarid conditions, and national price-support policies introduced after the 1930s have all aided agricultural recovery. In the 1950s, eastern Montana experienced rapid growth in the petroleum and natural-gas industries, and the 1960s, '70s, and '80s brought new wealth from tourism and strip mining of coal on the Great Plains. Agriculture Agriculture continues to be important in Montana, although, as in numerous other states, the number of farms has declined in recent decades. Large-scale farming and ranching predominate. Beef cattle, sheep, and lambs, important since the 1880s, are still raised in large numbers, but Montana also now produces substantial numbers of hogs and pigs. Wheat is the chief crop. Other crops are hay, sweet cherries, barley, oats, sugar beets, and alfalfa. Forestry Approximately one-fourth of Montana's area is covered with forest, much of it in national parks or other reserves. Some of the timber available to commercial cutting is of inadequate quality, and some is too difficult to transport. The principal woods cut are ponderosa pine, larch, and Douglas fir; lumber, plywood, pulp, and paper are leading wood products. Mining Traditionally a mining state, Montana fluctuates in its metals--gold, silver, and copper--output, depending on prices and labor conditions. Copper was long mined at Butte and was for many years the principal state export, but many of the copper mines were closed in the early 1980s. Petroleum and coal are the leading minerals today. Petroleum production is concentrated in the Elk Basin, Cut Bank, and Williston Basin fields and at Bell Creek, near Broadus. Most coal is extracted from strip mines in the eastern coalfields, with large operations at Colstrip. Vermiculite, talc, and tungsten are also mined. Manufacturing Montana's sparse population, small labor supply, and high transportation costs to other parts of the nation restrict industrial development to the processing of raw materials and agricultural commodities. The processing of lumber and wood products, including paper, is Montana's most important manufacturing activity. The growing of Christmas trees is significant economically. The second most important industrial activity in the state is food processing--particularly sugar refining and flour milling. Other industry involves the processing of mineral products; East Helena is a center for mineral processing. There are petroleum refineries at Great Falls, Billings, Laurel, and Cut Bank. Other manufactures include bricks and cement. Transportation Major transportation routes follow--as in the past--the Missouri, Yellowstone, and Clark Fork river valleys. The major highway routes are interstate highways 15, 90, and 94, and major rail lines provide passenger as well as freight service. Water travel is minimal, and access to Fort Benton, a flourishing head of navigation on the Missouri River in the 1860s and '70s, is now impeded by Fort Peck Dam. Major airports are at Billings and Great Falls. Tourism Montana's tourist attractions include \TGlacier National Park\t and \TYellowstone National Park\t; Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area; vast mountain and wilderness areas; excellent hunting, fishing, and camping; and dude ranches, ski resorts, and annual rodeo events. Bozeman, Missoula, Whitefish, and Red Lodge are tourist centers. Power Most power in Montana is hydroelectric, with major sites at Great Falls, Columbia Falls, and Fort Peck, and the Hungry Horse, Canyon Ferry, and Libby dams. Four steam-generating plants used coal as a fuel in 1977, including two of megawatt capacity at Colstrip. Montana is one of the leading states in the production of hydroelectricity. Steam generating plants using coal are also important; there are also oil-fired and gas-fired generating plants in the state. The most important coal-fired power plants are in Rosebud County, a center of coal mining. GOVERNMENT In 1972, Montanans approved a new constitution, effective as of July 1, 1973. It replaced the outdated and overly amended constitution adopted in 1889. Executive power rests with the governor, assisted by a lieutenant governor, both of whom are elected to 4-year terms. The bicameral legislature, which meets biennially in 90-day sessions, is composed of 50 senators (elected for 4-year terms) and 100 representatives (elected for 2-year terms). Two elected officials go to the U.S. Senate and two to the U.S. House of Representatives. Montana's political outlook is evenly balanced between conservative and liberal factions. Although considered a liberal state nationally, Montana has historically been dominated by conservative industrialists on state and local levels. Growing urbanization has brought increased local liberalism. HISTORY In the early 1700s, Indian tribes, including the Blackfoot, Sioux, Crow, and Cheyenne who had been displaced from lands farther east, began moving into Montana, pushing local tribes--including the Flatheads, Shoshoni, and Kutenai--westward toward the mountains. The first recorded visit by Europeans occurred in 1805, when the explorers Meriwether \TLewis\t and William \TClark\t, accompanied by their Shoshoni Indian guide \TSacagawea\t, ascended the Missouri and Jefferson rivers to cross the Rocky Mountains (see \TLewis and Clark Expedition\t). In 1807, Manuel Lisa established the first fur-trading post on the Big Horn River. Many trappers and traders, the so-called \Tmountain men\t, soon followed. Lisa's post, along with others, was destroyed by hostile Indians. Montana's first permanent white settlement did not appear until Father Pierre Jean \TDe Smet\t founded Saint Mary's Mission in 1841. Gold was discovered in 1858 at Goldcreek in small amounts and in larger amounts in the 1860s at Grasshopper Creek (now Bannack), Alder Gulch (Virginia City), Last Chance Gulch (Helena), and Confederate Gulch (Diamond City). The resulting gold rush brought a large influx of white settlers and ushered in a colorful decade, replete with stories of fortunes made and lost overnight, murderous road agents preying on stage coaches and miners, corrupt sheriffs, and citizens' \Tvigilante\t groups. In 1863 western Montana, which had been successively part of Oregon and Washington territories, was united with eastern Montana, previously part of the territories of Louisiana (1805), Missouri (1812), Nebraska (1854), and Dakota (1861), in the Idaho territory. In 1864 separate territorial status was achieved, with the capital first at Bannack, then Virginia City, and, after 1875, at Helena. In the 1860s stockmen began trailing cattle northward from Texas, copper mining began, and conflict with the Indians intensified. In the Sioux War of 1875-76, the forces of Lt. Col. George Armstrong \TCuster\t were annihilated at Little Bighorn, but government troops subsequently subdued and removed the hostile Indians to reservations. Railroads crossed the region in the 1880s, further stimulating cattle and sheep ranching and indirectly setting off a fierce struggle between cattle- and sheepherders for priority grazing rights. In the mountains copper king Marcus \TDaly\t developed Butte Hill from a rough silver camp to a vast industrial complex of copper mines, mills, and smelters. Political life came increasingly to revolve around copper and Daly's bitter rivalry with two other copper kings, William Andrews \TClark\t and F. ("Fritz") Augustus Heinze. On Nov. 8, 1889, after 5 years of effort, Montana became the 41st state. From 1909 to 1918 homesteaders arrived by the thousands to fence and plant the range with grain crops. Favored by unusually abundant rainfall, the farms flourished, but a series of dry years beginning in 1917 forced abandonment of many homesteads. In the \TDepression of the\t 1930s, many mines closed. Since then greater diversity and stability have been introduced in the state by the development of irrigation facilities, tourism, and petroleum and coal resources. Copper's dominance has been broken, and coal mining holds great promise for future economic growth. Strip mining of coal began in the 1960s, but is strongly opposed by Indians on whose reservations much of the coal is located. Environmentalists are seeking to preserve and conserve water quantity and quality, reclaim mined-over land, prevent air pollution from mining operations and other emissions, and protect scenic amenities. Certain areas of southern Montana were threatened in 1988 by raging forest fires in nearby Yellowstone National Park. Robert A. Chadwick Bibliography: Bradley, James H., The March of the Montana Column: A Prelude to the Custer Disaster, ed. by E. I. Stewart (1961); Dimsdale, Thomas J., The Vigilantes of Montana (1953; repr. 1985); Farr, William E., and Toole, Kenneth R., Montana: Portraits of the Past (1978); Federal Writers' Project, Montana: A State Guide Book (1939); Hamilton, James M., A History of Montana: From Wilderness to Statehood, ed. by Merrill G. Burlingame, 2d ed. (1970); Howard, Joseph K., Montana: High, Wide and Handsome, new illus. ed. (1959; repr. 1983); Johnson, Dorothy M., Montana (1970); Malone, Michael P., and Roeder, Richard B., Montana: A History of Two Centuries (1976); Spence, Clark C., Montana: A Bicentennial History (1978); Stuart, Granville, Pioneering in Montana: The Making of a State, 1864-1887 (1925; repr. 1977); Toole, K. Ross, Montana: An Uncommon Land (1959; repr. 1984), and Twentieth-Century Montana (1983).