European prehistory has conventionally been studied in light of the Three Age system--Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age--ending with the start of written history. The periods covered in this article date from the spread of farming to Europe before the 6th millennium BC to the Roman conquests about the beginning of the Christian Era. For the prehistory of Greece and Italy, see \TAegean civilization\t; \TEtruscans\t; \TGreece, ancient\t; and \TRome, ancient\t. NEOLITHIC PERIOD The \TNeolithic Period\t marked the introduction of agriculture and settled life in Europe. Of all the major domesticated plants and animals, only cattle were native to Europe. Sheep, goats, wheat, and barley were introduced from the Near East. The new farming economy spread slowly from southeast Europe to the north and west. Agricultural diffusion in Europe--spanning several millennia--was perhaps limited both by mountain ranges and by temperature climates. Eastern and Central Europe The earliest Neolithic sites in southeast Europe date from before the 6th millennium BC and are located in areas with the most easily workable soils. Constant settlement on the same location produced the characteristic \Ltell\ls, or settlement mounds, that measure up to 30 m (100 ft); successive phases of the Balkan Neolithic are named for two such tells, Starcevo and Vinca, near Belgrade. Barley and several varieties of wheat were grown, and domesticated breeds of sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were raised; hunting may have still been important during the early phases. The houses were small rectangular single-roomed structures of timber, many with wattle-and-daub (woven twigs plastered with clay) walls. Pottery skills were highly developed, and numerous objects were produced, including a wide variety of figurines. In central Europe farming began with the Linear Pottery culture (see \TDanubian culture\t), so called because of the decorated ceramics it produced. This culture, which began in the 5th millennium BC and stretched from Hungary to Holland, exhibited remarkable homogeneity. Crops were easier to cultivate on the light loess soils of central Europe, and so settlements were established according to these soil patterns. Cattle were more important than sheep or pigs, and in addition to wheat and barley, other crops such as peas, beans, and flax were grown. The settlements, such as Bylany, Czechoslovakia, and Koln-Lindenthal, Germany, were frequently large, and the people were sheltered in massive timber longhouses, about 6 to 7 m (20-24 ft) wide and up to 30 m (100 ft) long. In the 4th millennium BC a greater variety of pottery, buildings, and burial types began to appear. The 3d-millennium settlements of the Michelsberg culture, which extended from the Rhineland to Belgium, are distinguished by enclosure ditches. Western Europe In Italy, southern France, and Spain the Impressed Ware culture introduced farming in the 6th millennium; however, stone tool manufacture and the occupation of caves continued. Subsistence, not yet based primarily on agriculture, was still dependent on hunting and fishing; deer, wild boar, and fish and shellfish were important sources of food. Farther north in France, the earliest Neolithic culture, c.4000 BC, is named for the site at Camp de Chassey. Settlements were located in a wide variety of areas, including caves and fertile river terraces, and hunting was of little importance; crop production and animal husbandry, especially cattle, were the basis of the economy. In Switzerland, a series of settlements were established on the lake shores; at these so-called \Llake dwelling\ls, now thought to be waterside sites, agriculture was adapted to the Alpine environment, with emphasis on cattle and legumes and fruit in addition to wheat. In northern Europe and Scandinavia the earliest Neolithic culture was the Funnel-beaker culture, named for its characteristic pottery. In some areas, as in the Mesolithic \TErtebolle culture\t of Denmark, older traditions of hunting and fishing survived alongside agriculture. In the 3d millennium BC, later Neolithic groups, identified from their typical artifacts as the so-called Corded Ware and \LBattle Axe culture\ls, developed new single-grave burial rites. The beginning of the Neolithic in Britain and Ireland, dated from the later 4th millennium BC, is marked by extensive clearance of the forest for agriculture. The earliest monuments are collective tombs, such as the wedge-shaped graves in Ireland called court \Lcairn\ls and the earthen long \LBarrow\ls in England. Settlements were rare until the 3d millennium, when causewayed enclosures similar to those of the Michelsberg culture were built throughout England; an example is at Windmill Hill, Wiltshire. In the late 3d millennium, major ceremonial monuments were constructed, including the henges such as \TAvebury\t, \TWoodhenge\t, and the first phase of \TStonehenge\t. In Britain, as on the continent, flint and other stone sources particularly suitable for tools were highly prized and traded over long distances. Megalithic Culture The collective burial rite represented in the long barrows occurred more widely in the megalithic tomb tradition that extended from Portugal to the north of Scotland and across northern Europe to Germany and Denmark. These \Lmegalith\ls, the earliest of which are in Brittany and date from before 4000 BC, were constructed in a variety of external forms with an assortment of different internal chamber constructions. The latest are the most complex, such as the passage graves of Brittany and in the Boyne Valley, Ireland, at \TNewgrange\t, \TDowth\t, and \TKnowth\t. Recent research suggests that some of these tombs, whose construction demanded a high degree of social organization, were astronomically aligned for viewing the winter solstice. BRONZE AGE Beginnings of Metallurgy in Europe The \TBronze Age\t is marked by the first appearance of metallurgy, in particular copper and its alloy, bronze. The development of this new technology was a long process, from the simple use of native copper (natural nuggets of pure metal) through cold hammering and the discovery of smelting and casting, to the use of a tin alloy to make bronze. Copper objects occur widely in some late Neolithic cultures, and this phase lasted so long in some regions that it is sometimes referred to as the Copper Age, or \TChalcolithic Period\t. The earliest copper objects in Europe appeared in the Neolithic Vinca culture of the Balkans, perhaps as early as 5000 BC--substantially earlier than in the Aegean, suggesting an independent invention of metallurgy in Europe. By 4000 BC smelting and casting had been mastered, and the range of copper objects progressed from beads and awls to impressive shaft-hole axes. Though the first copper objects may have been valuable because of the rarity, metallurgy soon became an integral part of the economy, to the extent of the development of complex mining techniques before 4000 BC, as at Rudna Glava in Yugoslavia. Other independent centers of metallurgy, following the same stages of development, were in Spain and possibly in Italy. In western Europe copper objects occur in association with the late Neolithic Michelsberg culture and further north with the final phases of the Funnel-beaker culture and its successors the Single Grave and Corded Ware cultures; the dissemination of early metal technology, however, is particularly linked with the \TBeaker culture\t, which covered most of the western, central, and northern Europe in the late 3d millennium BC. Whether this culture represents an intrusive population with an origin ascribed variously to Spain, the south of France, and central Europe, or a high-status burial rite widely adopted by local elites, typical Beaker grave goods included pottery, a small copper knife and, in some cases, small ornaments of gold. The great difference in wealth visible from these graves is evidence for the emergence of social ranking, in contrast to the apparently more egalitarian society of the Neolithic. Emergence of Bronze Industries The art of smelting copper with tin to produce the harder alloy bronze had been learned in the Balkans in the early 3d millennium BC and, soon after 2000 BC, was well established throughout Europe. Axes and daggers, among the most common objects produced, have been found in various types of single-grave burial sites. The wealth of early Bronze Age society is seen in richly furnished graves of the \TWessex culture\t in southern England, where grave goods included triangular bronze daggers and gold and amber ornaments. This was not, however, an isolated phenomenon; comparably rich grave goods are known from sites in Brittany and from the Unetice culture of central Europe. The skill of the bronzesmiths progressed throughout the 2d millennium, as more complex techniques of casting were mastered. The design of axes became more efficient, and in eastern Europe elaborately decorated shaft-hole axes were produced in great numbers. New weapon types were also developed in central Europe; the daggers of the early Bronze Age were transformed into rapiers and swords of varied forms. A wide range of local bronze ornaments, especially pins and bracelets, were also produced. Toward the end of the 2d millennium, a number of important cultural and social changes were underway throughout Europe. The so-called Urnfield burial rite of flat-grave cremation was widely adopted in central and western Europe (see \TUrnfield culture\t). The bronze industry became increasingly specialized and centralized, with improved systems of collecting raw materials and distributing finished products. New techniques were introduced, including sheet-metal working, which was used especially for armor, such as helmets, breastplates and shields; and for buckets and bowls, probably associated with the rituals of the highest levels in society. Improved casting techniques enabled the more efficient socketed axes to be produced in vast numbers. New sword types used for slashing rather than stabbing became common, which together with the body armor suggest that new fighting methods were introduced. The horse was also more widely used, for traction if not for riding. Even in parts of western Europe where the burial customs of the early Bronze Age ceased but the Urnfield culture did not appear, many of the same changes also occurred, especially those in fighting methods and bronze technology. Large bronze cauldrons and buckets were produced there instead of the vessel types common in central Europe, though they possibly had a similar social function. Social Developments Many of these changes affected the highest levels of contemporary society, suggesting an increase in the social ranking already apparent in the earlier Bronze Age. Further evidence for this social development is seen in the appearance of hillforts (fortified hilltop enclosures) in many parts of central Europe and western Britain. The construction of such defenses at the same time as the adoption of new fighting methods was a result of increased aggression, possibly from competition for mineral and agricultural resources. Certainly, many areas overexploited in the Neolithic and earlier Bronze Age were abandoned, and the appearance of the first field systems suggests a more controlled use of available land. All of these social, political, and economic changes mark a significant turning point in European prehistory in the late 2d millennium BC. IRON AGE The \TIron Age\t in Europe is conventionally divided into an earlier period (700-450 BC), named for the cemetery at \THallstatt\t in Austria, and a later period (450 BC-1st century BC) named for the site of \TLa Tene\t in Switzerland. Hallstatt Period In many areas Bronze Age traditions continued relatively unchanged during the Hallstatt period, especially in pottery styles and patterns of settlement, economy, and social structure. The most obvious change was in the metal industry, with iron gradually replacing bronze during the 7th century BC, especially for weapons and tools. However, bronze was still used for many small castings and sheet metal work. It was once thought that when iron was first introduced into Europe, it was rapidly adopted because of its superiority to bronze, but it is now apparent that iron was worked widely throughout Europe during the Bronze Age; it is therefore probable that the replacement of bronze was due primarily to economic factors that made iron cheaper. Changes also occurred in burial customs, especially in central Europe, where inhumation in a barrow once again became common. For some of the richest burials a new rite appeared--that of burying the dead with a four-wheeled wagon in a wooden mortuary chamber under a barrow, a custom that had a long tradition in Asia. Such wagon burials were particularly common from eastern France through Switzerland and southern Germany to Bohemia. From the 8th century BC, the Greeks had been first trading and then settling throughout the Mediterranean area; by the 6th century there were Greek colonies from Syria and the Black Sea to Spain. The quest for metal ores and other raw materials was one of the main reasons for this expansion; the ensuing trade with barbarian Europe had profound effects. A rich civilization flourished among the Dacians and Thracians in present-day Romania and Bulgaria, with many Greek influences absorbed from the Black Sea colonies. The most important colony in the west was Massilia (Marseille), founded about 600 BC. In the 6th century extensive trading links developed from central Europe to Marseille via the Rhone Valley and also across the Alps with the Etruscans. In return for the goods supplied from Europe (mainly raw materials), Mediterranean luxury goods flowed northward, especially Greek painted pottery and Etruscan bronzes. Many of the imports, such as jugs and cups, were concerned with the drinking of wine, which was also imported from Marseille in large jars. This trade was controlled by the Iron Age aristocracy, whose members in eastern France and southern Germany inhabited a series of small fortified hilltop settlements, complete with associated rich cemeteries. The best excavated is the Heuneburg, on the upper Danube in Germany, which produced a great variety of imported luxury goods and at one stage even adopted a Mediterranean style of defense, with mud-brick walls and bastions. The nearby barrows have yielded many rich grave goods, including a wagon, bronze cauldrons, and oriental silk. Mont Lassois, in eastern France, was a similar site, as was the nearby VIX burial. La Tene Period About 500 BC many of these sites declined. In the following La Tene period, the main centers that profited from the Mediterranean trade, now mostly with the Etruscans, were located further north. Richly furnished burials, usually in the form of inhumations under barrows, have been found in the highland areas containing metal ores and salt that extend in a crescent from the Champagne region of France through the Rhineland to Austria and Bohemia. These graves often contained imported Mediterranean items, two-wheeled chariots, and gold and bronze objects of local manufacture. New fashions emerged in weapons and ornaments, including torcs (neck rings), and a new art style using geometric motifs and plant elements derived from classical prototypes appeared; this new tradition is sometimes called \TCeltic art\t, because the La Tene culture is identified with the \TCelts\t. Few such burials were made after 400 BC, and in the next two centuries there were few signs of such wealth or of contacts with the Mediterranean. Later burial rites were more uniform; men were buried with their weapons, shield, spear and sword, and women were buried with their ornaments, especially brooches, bracelets, and torcs. Contact did not cease entirely, however; in the 3d century BC the first gold coins were struck, copying those of \TPhilip II\t of Macedonia. The La Tene culture reached its final development in the 1st century BC before the Roman conquests, when the sites known to the Romans as oppida (towns) flourished from central France to Hungary. They were fortified sites, mainly on hilltops, although in Germany they were frequently in river valleys. Excavations at Stare Hradisko, Czechoslovakia and at Manching, Germany have shown that these were densely occupied towns, functioning as markets and centers of industrial production for such items as iron, bronze, glass, leather, wood, and pottery. Coins were minted, including small denominations for everyday transactions, and goods were again imported from the Mediterranean--especially wine in amphorae (pottery jars for bulk transport) and Italian bronze jugs. Evidence of political developments suggests that kings gave way to government by council and magistrates. Few of these Iron Age developments affected northern Europe, although some associated objects have been found there, such as the famous silver cauldron from Gundestrup, Denmark. A new form of ritual sacrifice and burial occurred in northern Europe; it is still poorly understood (see \TLindow man\t; \TTollund man\t.) In Britain, Hallstatt and La Tene fashions in weapons and ornaments were copied, as was La Tene art in an insular version. Beginning about 50 BC, however, a similar urban pattern emerged: some of the towns in the west developed from long-established hillforts such as \TMaiden Castle\t; in the southeast, however, new sites such as Colchester appeared. As on the continent, these oppida were local market and industrial centers. Extensive trade with the Romans also took place, with such items as grains, furs, and slaves exchanged for wine and other luxuries. T. C. Champion Bibliography: Barker, G., Prehistoric Farming in Europe (1985); Bordes, Francois, The Old Stone Age, trans. by J. E. Anderson (1968); Champion, T.C., et al., Prehistoric Europe (1984); Childe, V. Gordon, The Prehistory of European Society (1958); Evans, John G., The Environment of Early Man in the British Isles (1975); Filip, Jan., Celtic Civilisation and Its Heritage, 2d ed. (1977); Harding, D. W., Prehistoric Europe (1978); Hawkes, Charles F. C., and Hawkes, S., eds., Greeks, Celts, and Romans: Studies in Venture and Resistance (1973); Hawkes, Jacquetta H., Early Britain (1946); Phillips, Patricia, Early Farmers of West Mediterranean Europe (1975); Piggott, Stuart, ed., France Before the Romans (1974); Renfrew, Colin, ed., British Prehistory: A New Outline (1974); Sanders, N.K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, rev. ed. (1985); Silverberg, Robert, The Morning of Mankind: Prehistoric Man in Europe (1967); Tringham, Ruth, Hunters, Fishers and Farmers of Eastern Europe, 6000-3000 B.C. (1971); Whittle, A., Neolithic Europe (1985). See also: \TEurope, history of\t; \Tprehistoric art\t; \Tstone alignments\t.