{boh-liv'-ee-uh} Bolivia is a landlocked country straddling the central Andes Mountains in west central South America. It is bounded on the north and east by Brazil, on the southeast by Paraguay, on the south by Argentina, and on the west by Chile and Peru. \TSucre\t is the judicial capital; \TLa Paz\t is the administrative capital. Bolivia became a republic in 1825, when it gained independence from Spain. It is named for Simon \TBolivar\t, the liberator of South America. LAND AND RESOURCES The southwestern quarter of Bolivia is dominated by the Andes Mountains, which reach their widest extent of 650 km (400 mi) in Bolivia and are divided into two great mountain chains, or cordilleras, separated by a broad upland plateau known as the Altiplano. The Western Cordillera forms Bolivia's eastern border with Chile; it rises to snowcapped peaks between 5,700 m (18,700 ft) and 6,500 m (21,300 ft) and reaches 7,014 m (23,012 ft) in Nevada de Ancohuma, which is the highest point in Bolivia. The Eastern Cordillera rises abruptly from the eastern Altiplano and is dominated by the snowcapped peaks of Illampu (6,485 m/21,231 ft) and Illimani (6,882 m/22,578 ft). North of \TCochabamba\t, the Eastern Cordillera runs in a northwest-southeast direction and slopes northeastward toward the lowlands of the Amazon Basin; south of Cochabamba, the cordillera assumes a more north-south orientation and slopes eastward toward the \TChaco\t. Narrow, steep-sided valleys, known as yungas, are deeply incised into these eastern slopes, the more notable being those in which the important towns of Cochabamba, Sucre, and Tiraja are located. Between the Western and Eastern cordilleras is the Altiplano, which has an average elevation of about 3,600 m (12,000 ft) and is one of the highest populated areas in the world. The Altiplano is about 840 km (520 mi) long and an average of 140 km (80 mi) wide and is dominated in northern Bolivia by Lake \TTiticaca\t, located on the Peruvian border and the world's highest navigable lake. The remaining three-fourths of Bolivia lie east of the Andes and are occupied by the Eastern Lowlands, or llanos, which slope gradually eastward from elevations of about 450 m (1,500 ft) in the foothills of the eastern Andes to 200 m (650 ft) or less along the borders with Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. The northern llanos, widely referred to as the Beni Plain, are drained by the Beni and Mamore rivers and their tributaries and form part of the great Amazon River basin. The central and southern sections are drained by the Pilcomayo River and are part of South America's Chaco plain. Climate The climate of the Altiplano is cool and harsh all year because of the high altitude. Daytime temperatures often reach 15 deg-18 deg C (60s F), and nights frequently fall below freezing, especially during the winter (June-August) months. Rainfall totals 700 mm (28 in) on the shores of Lake Titicaca, which is so large and deep that it exerts a moderating marine effect on the climate of the northern Altiplano, to less than 125 mm (5 in) in the arid southern parts of the plateau. The yungas are considerably warmer because of their lower altitude. The northern yungas have a humid subtropical climate, characterized by a heavy annual rainfall of about 1,250 mm (50 in), a high humidity throughout the year, and a mean annual temperature of 23 deg C (73 deg F); rainfall, temperatures, and humidity diminish toward the south, and the southern yungas are considered to have the most pleasant climate in all Bolivia, with a rainfall of 450 mm (18 in) a year and a mean annual temperature of 20 deg C (68 deg F). The llanos have a hot and wet subtropical climate, with heavy summer rainfall in the north and a drier, more temperate climate toward the south. Vegetation and Animal Life The Altiplano is too high for tree growth and has only a thin vegetation cover. Extensive subtropical and tropical forests cover the Beni Plain and the lower slopes of the northern yungas and give way to savanna and scrub brush as rainfall diminishes toward the south. Bolivia's animal life varies greatly. Animals commonly found in the rain forest include the jaguar, capybara, toucan, and anaconda. The grasslands contain the rhea, puma, and deer. The llama, alpaca, vicuna, and chinchilla inhabit the highlands. PEOPLE The principal ethnic groups in Bolivia are Indians, who make up an estimated 55% of the total population; mestizos (of mixed Indian and European ancestry), who make up 25-30% of the total population; and people of European (primarily Spanish) origin, who make up 5-15% of the total population. The two largest Indian groups are the \TQuechua\t, who make up about 30% of the total population, and the \TAymara\t, who make up about 25% of the total population. About 95% of the people are Roman Catholics. The state no longer supports Catholicism as an official religion, and many Indians combine traditional, pre-Christian symbolism with Catholic religious practices. Spanish is widely spoken in the cities and has traditionally been the language of the educated elite. Quechua and Aymara, together with other Indian languages, predominate in rural areas. Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara are all official languages. Much of the population is concentrated in the 10% of Bolivia located on the cold and bleak Altiplano, which has been the center of Indian life since pre-Inca days. The warmer and potentially far more productive Eastern Lowlands remain sparsely settled despite official colonization efforts to relocate Indians from the Altiplano since the 1950s. About half of the population live in rural areas, mostly by subsistence farming. The largest urban centers are La Paz, \TSanta Cruz\t, Cochabamba, and Oruro. Education is free and compulsory for all children aged 6-14, but many are not enrolled owing to lack of school facilities in certain rural areas. About 75% of the population are literate, and all illiterates between the ages of 15 and 50 are required to attend literacy classes. Spanish is the language of instruction in the schools, with the study of Quechua and Aymara made compulsory in 1979. Bolivia has 9 universities. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES Mining and subsistence agriculture continue to dominate Bolivia's economy as they have since the 16th century, although efforts are being made to expand manufacturing, stimulate commercial agriculture, and otherwise diversify the economy. Mining employs about 4% of the labor force and accounts for valuable export commodities; agriculture employs nearly half of the labor force but is practiced on a mainly subsistence basis and does not supply sufficient food to meet domestic needs. Mining Bolivia is one of the world's leading producers of tin, the principal mineral mined there today. After 1870 tin replaced silver, which had been mined since the Spanish first discovered it at \TPotosi\t in 1545, as the principal mineral mined. In 1952 the three companies controlling 80% of tin production were nationalized as Comibol (Mining Corporation of Bolivia). Other important metals are antimony, zinc, tungsten, lead, copper, and gold, most of which, together with the tin and silver, are produced at high altitudes on the Altiplano. Major oil and natural gas deposits are located in the eastern llanos near Santa Cruz, and natural gas is now a major export. Iron ore discovered at El Mutan will diversify further mining activities. Agriculture The principal farming area is along the shores of Lake Titicaca on the northern Altiplano, with crops of potatoes, corn, quinoa (a high-protein seed), wheat, barley, and oca (a tuber) supporting a large rural population. Malnutrition is widespread, and cultivable land is scarce; much of the better land is terraced, and the terraces, like the farming methods, date from pre-Inca times. Herds of sheep and llamas are raised on the drier, southern parts of the Altiplano, and irrigated agriculture is practiced in the south where fresh water is available. Other important farming areas are the fertile valleys surrounding the towns of Cochabamba, Sucre, and Tarija on the eastern slopes of the Andes, where large quantities of maize, wheat, and potatoes are produced. Potentially better farming lands are located in the eastern yungas and llanos, and continuing government-sponsored colonization efforts are relocating many poverty-stricken Indians from the Altiplano to the eastern regions. Coca (which the local population chews and from which cocaine is extracted) is grown on about 75% of all farmland and is the nation's leading source of foreign exchange, although its export is illegal. Coffee, cacao, bananas, and sugarcane are grown in the yungas, and a wide variety of crops--including sugarcane, rice, citrus fruits, coffee, and cotton--are produced in the lowlands near Santa Cruz. Cattle ranching is the principal activity on the Beni Plain and the Chaco. Manufacturing Manufacturing activities focus mainly on raw-material processing and the reduction of bulk in materials designed for export. There are numerous tin smelters on the Altiplano, an antimony smelter at Vinto, a zinc refinery, a bismuth refinery, and tungsten plants, and plans exist for a steel plant that will use the El Mutan iron ores. Oil is refined at Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. Trade and Transportation Bolivia's principal exports are tin and natural gas, which together accounted for 60% of all legal exports in 1987. Food is the principal import. Bolivia has no outlet to the sea for foreign trade and is negotiating with Chile and Peru for guaranteed access to Pacific coast ports across lands lost by Bolivia to Chile in the War of the Pacific (1879-84). Access to the Atlantic Ocean is provided by a 1938 agreement with Paraguay that allows navigation on the Paraguay and Parana rivers, by a 1974 agreement with Brazil that allows duty-free access to the Brazilian ports of Belem and Santos, and by a 1976 agreement with Argentina for free port facilities at Rosario. Bolivia is a member of the \TLatin American Integration Association\t and in 1978 was a signatory to the eight-nation Amazon Cooperation Treaty. In 1989, Bolivia received more U.S. aid than any other South American nation, much of it earmarked to fight the cocaine trade. Bolivia's transportation network is poorly developed, and only since the 1950s have roads been built to link the llanos with the populated highlands. Railroads replaced mules and llamas in the late 19th century in transporting ores from the Altiplano to Pacific coast ports, but the first link between east and west was the highway built from Santa Cruz to Cochabamba in 1954. Other highways have since been built, and a railroad in the east now links Santa Cruz with Yacuiba and with Trinidad Beni. Pipelines carry oil and natural gas across the Andes from Santa Cruz to Arica (Chile) via Oruro and from Santa Cruz southward to Argentina via Choreti. A gas pipeline is planned from Santa Cruz to Corumba, Brazil. GOVERNMENT Bolivia is, constitutionally, a republic. The constitution (often suspended) was promulgated in 1947 and provides for the election of a president every four years and a Congress consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. For local administrative purposes Bolivia is divided into 9 departments. HISTORY Between AD 600 and 900, Indians of Aymara origin were living at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, where they developed a highly advanced culture known as the \TTiahuanaco\t. About 1400 the Quechua-speaking Incas invaded Bolivia from Peru and incorporated the highlands into the Inca Empire (see \TInca\t). The Spanish conquered the country in 1538 and were not driven out until independence from Spain was achieved in 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has been plagued by numerous internal revolutions, and disastrous territorial losses have greatly reduced its original extent. In the War of the Pacific, Bolivia lost its Pacific seacoast and rich nitrate deposits in the Atacama Desert to Chile (see \TPacific, War of the\t). In 1903 it lost the Acre Territory on the north to Brazil; and in the \TChaco War\t (1928-30, 1933-35) large areas of the Chaco were lost to Paraguay. The loss of the Chaco severely discredited the ruling class, and this, combined with discontent among the miners, led to the establishment in the 1940s of the leftist-oriented MNR (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario), headed by Victor \TPaz Estenssoro\t. The MNR seized power in 1943 and, with Maj. Gualberto Villaroel as president, urged the unionization of the tin miners and other reforms. When Villaroel was murdered in La Paz in 1946, Paz Estenssoro fled to Argentina; he was elected president in 1951 while still in exile but was not allowed to return until the MNR again seized power from the governing military junta in 1952 in Bolivia's 179th uprising since independence. Paz Estenssoro assumed the presidency in 1952 and instituted numerous and far-reaching social reforms, including the nationalization of the tin mines, introduction of universal suffrage, land reforms, and curtailment of the military. Hernan Siles Zuazo, a vice-president under Paz Estenssoro, served as president from 1956 to 1960, and Paz Estenssoro was reelected in 1960, only to be overthrown in a military coup in 1964 by Gen. Rene Barrientos Ortuno, who assumed the presidency and was elected president in 1966. Barrientos, a rightist, remained in office until April 1969, when he was killed in a helicopter crash and was succeeded by Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas. Salinas was overthrown the same year and replaced by Gen. Ovando Candia, who was himself deposed in 1970 by Gen. Juan Jose Torres Gonzales, a leftist. In 1971, Col. Hugo \TBanzer Suarez\t, a rightist, overthrew Torres and assumed the presidency. In 1978 elections were held and subsequently declared fraudulent. The military took control until August 1979, when an interim civilian government was chosen by the Congress. Former president Siles Zuazo was reelected in July 1980, but he was prevented by the army from taking office until October 1982. During his tenure Bolivia faced severe economic stress. In elections held a year early, in July 1985, no candidate won the necessary majority. The election of the president thus passed to the Congress, who chose Paz Estenssoro. His term in office was marked by economic problems, labor unrest, and the domestic and international concerns associated with drug trafficking. The 1989 election was also inconclusive; Banzer Suarez then supported Jaime Paz Zamora, who assumed office in August. Ray Henkel Bibliography: Alexander, Robert J., and Wesson, Robert, Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Policies (1982); Fifer, J., Bolivia (1972); Klein, Herbert S., Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (1982); Ladman, Jerry R., and Morales, Juan A., eds., Redemocratization in Bolivia (1988); Malloy, J., and Gamarra, Revolution and Reaction (1987); Osborne, Harold, Bolivia: A Land Divided (1965: repr. 1986); Yaeger, Gertrude M., Bolivia (1988).