{bal-lay'} Ballet is a formalized type of dancing in which the performers, through planned movement to accompanying music, present a story or develop an abstract concept. It is an elaborated form of lyric theater, and its history is a 400-year record of invention and performance. Like opera, with whose history it frequently intermingles, ballet is a tradition European in origin and Renaissance in its ideal of harmonious collaboration between artists--dancers, mimes, choreographers, musicians, and designers of costumes and decor. Since World War II, ballet has achieved a renaissance of its own throughout the world with the establishment of national companies, or private companies with national identities, supported variously by government subsidy, philanthropic funding, and burgeoning public enthusiasm. Ballet History The roots of ballet are in the public celebrations--parades, masques, pageants, and equestrian demonstrations--of Italy and France in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. In Italy the impulse toward dramatic representation resulted in the balletto--from ballo ("dance") and ballare ("to dance")--an enormous spectacle lasting hours (or even days) and utilizing dance, recited poetry, song, and elaborate scenic effects, all organized around an allegorical plot and with the masked and richly costumed men and boys of the local court taking the principal roles. The spectacles were presented in large halls or on tennis courts. (Modern theaters as such were not built until the late 16th century.) The audience for this matrix for ballet and opera was the courtiers, who themselves employed dancing masters for instruction in social skills and for mounting amateur theatricals. In 1460, Domenico da Piacenza wrote one of the first dance manuals. French Court Ballets. When Henry II of France married Catherine de Medicis, in 1533, she imported the Italian balletto to her new home in France, where it became the ballet. In 1573, she staged Ballet des Polonais to music of Roland de \TLassus\t, the poetry of Pierre de \TRonsard\t, and the dances of Balthazar de BEAUJOYEUX. Beaujoyeux's most famous work was Ballet Comique de la Reine, presented in 1581. Louis XIV, patron of the arts and himself a dancer in court ballets (ballets de cour), founded L'ACADEMIE \LRoyal\le \TDe\t \TDanse\t in 1661, which brought this form to a culmination. His dancing master, Pierre Beauchamps, codified the positions of the feet in classical ballet technique (the danse d'ecole) and invented many ballets, divertissements, and comedies-ballets (a spoken comedy with dance scenes interspersed) in collaboration with \TMoliere\t and the composer Jean Baptiste \TLully\t. Le Triomphe de l'Amour (1681) was the masterpiece of Beauchamps and Lully; in it appeared LaFontaine, the first woman to dance professionally in a ballet. The French love of la danse found a home at the Paris Opera, and the terminology for ballet technique was henceforth in the French language (see the accompanying Glossary of Ballet Terms). Emergence of Professional Ballet. In the early 18th century, ballet became a profession, with schools, theaters, paid performers, and rival aesthetic movements. Two French dancers, Marie Salle and Marie \TCamargo\t, achieved fame through their reforms of stage dress and their refinements in dance technique. The most distinguished composer of ballet music of the time was Jean Philippe \TRameau\t. The dominant progressive style of dance theater in the century was the ballet d'action, an attempt to unify the spectacle around clear narrative indicated in heroic mime and dance. No present-day equivalent to such a style exists, except perhaps in some of the dance-mimes of Mikhail \TFokine\t. The choreographers John Weaver of England, Franz Hilverding of Vienna, Gaspardo Angiolini of Italy, and Jean Georges \TNoverre\t of France spread the form throughout Europe and into Russia. Noverre alone created 150 ballets and worked in England, Austria, Italy, and Germany; his Letters on the Dance (1760) are still read today. The new narrative realism of stage action finally banished masks, and costumes began to suggest period style. Testifying to the international dynasties of dancers now possible, the Italian dancer and dancing master Gaetano Vestris (see \TVestris\t family) fathered Auguste Vestris in Paris in 1760, and the son danced at the Paris Opera for almost four decades as the "god of the dance," a title inherited from his father. Romantic Ballet. At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century ballet began to produce works still revived in the present time and thus capable of direct experience. The French ballet La Fille Mal Gardee (1789) is the oldest regularly performed work in current world repertoire. Choreographed by Jean \TDauberval\t, the ballet used peasant characters and occasional rustic dances, thereby prefiguring the style of the French romantic ballet of the 1830s and '40s. The technical reforms that resulted in the romantic movement were achieved by the Italian ballet masters Salvatore \TVigano\t and Carlo \TBlasis\t, and by the Frenchman Charles Didelot, who encouraged the use of pointe technique in "toe shoes" (shoes with blocked toes) for women. The romantic ballet announced itself in Filippo Taglioni's La Sylphide (1832), a ballet for his daughter, Marie Taglioni (see \TTaglioni\t family). The supernatural subject was expressed through the long, calf-length tutu of the sylphs' costume as well as by dancers "flown" by means of wires and pulleys. More importantly, La Sylphide marked an advance in dance technique for the simulation of an "unearthly" floating continuity in the dance movement. The work allowed some pointwork for Taglioni, and its choreography featured reactive effects for the corps de ballet and waltzlike partnering and adagio passages for the leads. In this ballet and in Adolphe \TAdam\t's Giselle (1841) the modern idea of the ballerina was born, not only in her sheer authority but in her mastery of dance discourse. Carlotta \TGrisi\t was the first Giselle; her dances were choreographed by Jules \TPerrot\t, who is known as well for the Pas de Quatre (1845), a dance divertissement choreographed for Taglioni, Fanny \TCerrito\t, Grisi, and Lucile \TGrahn\t, the four reigning ballerinas of their age. French ballet music reached a peak of expression in the ballets composed by Leo \TDelibes\t: Coppelia (1870), choreographed by Arthur \TSaint-Leon\t, and Sylvia (1876), choreographed by Louis Merante. In addition to the French, the other major--although little known at the time--European school of ballet was the Danish under the direction of August \TBournonville\t, a pupil of Auguste Vestris. Bournonville's version of La Sylphide (1836) is still performed today. The legacy of Bournonville, especially his French-derived technical emphasis on buoyancy and unexpected movement transitions, still awaits full absorption into international ballet language. Bournonville's many works include The Conservatory, Napoli, and The Guards at Amager. Russian Ballet. In Russia, the tsars' rapt imitation of European court manners included the importation of dancing masters, choreographers, and dancers throughout the 18th century. The French ballet master Didelot and the Swedish teacher Christian Johansson brought their art to St. Petersburg (now Leningrad). The great achievement of establishing a Russian classical school of dance, however, was the work of a Frenchman, Marius \TPetipa\t, the chief ballet master of the Imperial School and the Maryinsky (now Kirov) Ballet from 1869 to 1903. His many ballets (at least 60 full-length) form the Western idea of Russian theatrical art, especially those ballets set to the music of Peter Ilich \TTchaikovsky\t, The Sleeping Beauty (1890), and Swan Lake (first perf. 1877; Petipa version 1895). Petipa was assisted by Lev \TIvanov\t, and together their corps de ballet experiments, sophistication of pointe technique, and clear differentiation between classical and character dance styles remain as definitive of ballet. Ivanov choreographed The Nutcracker to Tchaikovsky's score and to Petipa's scenario in 1892. Perhaps the best loved of all ballets, The Nutcracker is believed to be the most frequently staged ballet in history. Fokine and Diaghilev. The beginnings of American theatrical dance proved influential on Russian ballet through the work of Isadora \TDuncan\t as dancer and choreographer in the first years of the 20th century. Performing to serious concert scores not intended for dance and wearing light "Greek" costumes, Duncan revolted against the declining French ballet and its European and American progeny, declaring the birth of a "free dance" that her barefoot style was to herald. Her immediate influence was less on American choreographers--Ruth \TSt. Denis\t, Martha \TGraham\t, or Doris \THumphrey\t--than on the Russian choreographer Mikhail Fokine. As chief choreographer for the impresario Serge \TDiaghilev\t, Fokine conquered Paris and all Europe when the \TBallets Russes de Serge Diaghilev\t opened in the French capital in 1909. For the next 20 years Diaghilev's company ruled world ballet. The greatest of his choreographers was Fokine, whose Petrushka (1911) combined the music of Igor \TStravinsky\t, the decor of Aleksandr \TBenois\t, and the dancing of Vaslav \TNijinsky\t (the new "god of the dance"), Tamara \TKarsavina\t, and Enrico Cecchetti. Fokine's mastery of plastic values and his effects of dance-mime created a new theatrical style. His ballets include Les Sylphides (1909; orig. Chopiniana, 1907), Le Pavillon d' Armide (1907), Le Carnaval (1910), and L'Oiseau de Feu (Firebird, 1910). Numerous dancers were associated with the Diaghilev company: Adolf Bolm, Alexandra \TDanilova\t, Anton \TDolin\t, Alicia \TMarkova\t, and Olga \TSpessivtseva\t. The Russian ballerina Anna \TPavlova\t danced only briefly with Diaghilev's company; with her own troupe she traveled throughout the world educating audiences in classical dance. From the Diaghilev period a tradition of great collaboration was born. Such world-famous choreographers as Vaslav Nijinsky, his sister Bronislava \TNijinska\t, Leonid \TMassine\t, and George \TBalanchine\t were all sponsored by Diaghilev. Splendid scenic contributions were made by Benois, Leon \TBakst\t, Michel \TLarionov\t, and Natalia \TGoncharova\t, as well as by artists of the modern French school, including Fernand \TLeger\t, Georges \TBraque\t, Pablo \TPicasso\t, and Henri \TMatisse\t. The greatest ballet composer of this century, Stravinsky, began his career with the Ballets Russes. Contemporary Ballet Following Diaghilev's death in 1929, various national ballet companies were established, many of them by his former associates. The earliest to emerge (1932) was the \TBallets Russes de Monte Carlo\t, in the first of its several forms. The British school combined the teaching of Marie \TRambert\t and the directorial skills of Ninette de \TValois\t. The resultant national company, the SADLER'S WELLS (later, \TRoyal\t) \Tballet\t, developed a great classical choreographer in Frederick \TAshton\t, whose many ballets--among them Les Patineurs (1937), Les Rendezvous (1933), Facade (1931), Sylvia (1952), Birthday Offering (1956), and La Fille Mal Gardee (1960)--and favored ballerina, Margot \TFonteyn\t, have achieved world acclaim. Recent British dancers of renown have been Antoinette \TSibley\t, Lynn \TSeymour\t, Anthony \TDowell\t, and David Blair. The choreographer Kenneth \TMacMillan\t has produced such widely admired full-length ballets as Romeo and Juliet (1965), Anastasia (1971), and Manon (1974). The French ballet has achieved no renaissance in the 20th century, despite the efforts of such longtime Opera Ballet choreographers as Leo Staats and Serge \TLifar\t and other influential French choreographers, including Roland \TPetit\t and Maurice \TBejart\t. The \TRoyal Danish Ballet\t periodically retrenches itself around its Bournonville reiches, and its academy continues to produce great male dancers. The \TStuttgart Ballet\t, with a history dating from the 1600s gained new prominence under John \TCranko\t, who was its director (1961-73). The Hamburg Ballet is also influential. The Russian schools associated with the \TBolshoi Ballet\t of Moscow and the Leningrad \TKirov Ballet\t have produced such great performers as Galina \TUlanova\t, Maya \TPlisetskaya\t, Irina Kolpakova, and Vladimir Vasiliev, as well as the sensational Kirov defectors to the West, Rudolf \TNureyev\t, Natalia \TMakarova\t, and Mikhail \TBaryshnikov\t. Soviet politics, however, have restrained conceptual innovation in choreography. The contributions of Aleksandr Gorsky, Fedor Lopukhov, and Leonid Lavrovsky have been variously influential on choreography in the West, but Soviet thought has produced little dance of consequence in latter days. Ballet in North America. Canada has three major ballet companies, which also tour the United States: Royal Winnipeg Ballet (1939) received its Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth II in 1953; \TNational Ballet of Canada\t (1951) is based in Toronto; Les Grands Ballets Canadiens (1956) makes its home in Montreal. In the United States, three companies dominate. The \TJoffrey Ballet\t (1960) offers a museum repertoire of modern classics and occasional works by contemporary choreographers. \TAmerican Ballet Theatre\t (1939) presents a repertoire of 19th-century classics along with modern works by Jerome \TRobbins\t, Britain's Antony \TTudor\t, Eliot \TFeld\t, and Twyla \TTharp\t interpreted by a continually changing performance roster that has included such recent stars as Cynthia \TGregory\t, Gelsey \TKirkland\t, Martine \Tvan Hamel\t, and the imported Russians Makarova, Nureyev, and Baryshnikov. The largest ballet academy in the Western Hemisphere is the School of American Ballet, established in 1934 by Lincoln \TKirstein\t and choreographer George Balanchine and today the official school of \TNew York City Ballet\t. In a series of great modern works--Apollo (1928), Serenade (1934), The Four Temperaments (1946; revised 1951), Orpheus (1948), Agon (1957)--Balanchine has re-created the idea of dance classicism and ballet technique. His collaborations with Stravinsky are models of sensitivity to musical values. The core of Balanchine's repertoire, including Concerto Barocco (1940), Ballet Imperial (1941; retitled Tchaikovsky Concerto #2), Symphony in C (1947, as Palais de Cristal), Divertimento No. 15 (1956), Liebeslieder Walzer (1960), Jewels (1967), and Stravinsky Violin Concerto (1972; first version, Balustrade, 1941) has made him the most influential ballet choreographer in the second half of this century. A number of great dancers have associated with New York City Ballet, among them Diana Adams, Mikhail Baryshnikov, Jacques D'AMBOISE, Andre \TEglevsky\t, Suzanne \TFarrell\t, Melissa \THayden\t, Allegra \TKent\t, Tanaquil LeClercq, Patricia \TMcBride\t, Peter \TMartins\t, Maria \TTallchief\t, and Edward \TVillella\t. Arthur \TMitchell\t, also a principal dancer with the company, withdrew to found the first black classical ballet school and company, \TDance Theatre of Harlem\t, following Martin Luther King's assassination in 1968; the company made its auspicious debut two years later. Ballet has recently become enormously popular outside New York City, although the oldest American company, the Atlanta Ballet, was founded in 1929. Among the prestigious companies now presenting regular seasons are the Dayton Ballet (1937) in Ohio, the San Francisco Ballet (1938), the Tulsa Ballet (1956), the Boston Ballet (1963), the Minnesota Dance Theater (1962) in Minneapolis, the Houston Ballet (1968), and the Pennsylvania and Milwaukee Ballet (merged 1987) in Philadelphia and Milwaukee. Ballet West, founded (1952) in Salt Lake City by the University of Utah, is the most notable of university-affiliated companies. These groups, and many professional ballet and dance schools in the United States, have become the source of fresh talent for ballet companies throughout the Western world. \TDon\t \TDaniels\t GLOSSARY OF BALLET TERMS Adagio: 1. A sequence of exercises in slow tempo, performed in ballet class to develop strength in sustaining extensions and balances. 2. A passage in a pas de deux in which the man supports the woman in turns and balances. 3. The technique of partnering. Air, en l'--"In the air": May be used to describe steps performed with the working leg off the floor, for example, rond de jambe en l'air; or jumping steps, for example, tour en l'air. Allegro: Sequences of steps in fast tempo, performed in ballet class to develop speed and clarity of execution. Arabesque: A position in which the dancer stands on one leg, straight or bent, with the other extended to the back, usually at right angles to the body, but higher in arabesque penchee (leaning), when the dancer leans forward and raises the leg higher to follow the line of the torso. Assemble: A jumping step in which the dancer thrusts one leg up and out to the front, side, or back, at the same time springing off the other, and brings the legs together in the air before landing. Attitude: A position originally derived from Giovanni da \TBologna\t's statue of Mercury, in which the dancer stands on one leg with the other extended to the front or back and bent at the knee, which should be held at a higher level than the foot. Ballabile: A group dance, usually for the corps de ballet. Ballerina: Literally, "female dancer," but usually used of one who dances leading roles, prima ballerina, first dancer. Ballet master/mistress: Before the word choreographer was used in its contemporary sense, the ballet master was responsible for arranging ballets. Today, the term more usually denotes the person who rehearses ballets created by someone else and also performs certain administrative duties such as drawing up rehearsal schedules; casting, of minor roles is often the province of the ballet master. Ballon: Literally, "bounce." The quality of smooth, springing ascent and descent in jumping steps, achieved primarily by the pliant use of the feet. Barre: The horizontal wooden bar that runs around the wall of the ballet studio at waist height, and which the dancer holds on to during the first part of class; by extension, this part of ballet class is also usually referred to as the barre. Basque, saut de: A jumping step in which the working leg is raised to the side and the foot of the other is drawn up to the knee of the working leg as the body turns in the air, landing in that position. Battement: A generic term to describe the various movements in which the leg makes a beating motion. They are performed at the barre in a systematic progression to exercise all the leg muscles: Battement tendu, in which the leg is extended to front, side, and back with the toe resting on the floor; battement tendu jete, in which the leg is extended to front, side, and back with the toe leaving the floor very slightly (also called glisse or degage); battement frappe, in which the foot is sharply extended to front, side, and back from the ankle of the supporting leg; petit battement, in which the working foot beats from front to back, or back to front, against the ankle of the supporting leg; battement fondu, in which the working leg is extended to front, side, or back, either to point tendu or in the air, from a position in which the working foot is pointed in front or in back of the supporting ankle; both knees are bent at the beginning and straighten simultaneously; grand battement jete, in which the leg is lifted, straight, to front, side, and back, attaining waist level or higher; grand battement developpe, in which the foot is drawn up to the knee of the standing leg and then extended to front, side, or back, until the leg is straight. Batterie: A generic term referring to steps in which the feet beat together or cross in the air, either as an embellishment to add brilliance to jumping steps, or as the essential characteristic of the step, as in entrechats or brises. Bourree, pas de: A linking step in which the weight is transferred from one foot to the other in three small steps. Pas de bourree chaine or couru is a series of small, even steps on pointe which give the impression that the dancer is gliding across the surface of the stage. Brise, pas: Literally, "broken step." A small traveling assemble embellished with a beat. Brise vole: a series of brises to front and back alternately, landing on one foot, giving the impression that the dancer is skimming over the surface of the stage. Cabriole: A jumping step in which the dancer beats straight legs together in the air. Changement de pieds: The dancer jumps straight up in the air with legs together and reverses the position of his feet before landing. Chasse, pas: A linking step in which the dancer slides one foot out to front, side, or back, bringing the other up to it in fifth position before continuing into the next movement. Chat, pas de: Literally, "cat's step." A light, jumping step in which the knees bend, bringing the feet together beneath the body before landing again in fifth position. Coda: The fast final section of a pas de deux, in which the dancers may have brief solo passages as well as dancing together in a brilliant conclusion, as in the "Bluebird" pas de deux of Tchaikovsky's Sleeping Beauty. Corps de ballet: The ensemble of dancers in a ballet company, who appear in support of the soloists. Coryphee: A dancer (of either sex) who has moved out of the corps de ballet to dance minor solo roles. Croise: Literally "crossed." A position of the body in which the dancer turns obliquely to the audience, so that when the working leg is raised, it crosses the supporting leg. Developpe: See grand battement developpe. Divertissement: 1. A section of a ballet comprising dances that have no connection with the plot, for example, the fairy-tale dances in The Sleeping Beauty, Act III, or the "Peasant" pas de deux in Giselle, Act I. 2. A short dance or excerpt from a longer ballet given as a separate item in a program. Efface: A position of the body in which the dancer turns slightly away from the audience; the working leg is the one farther from the audience. Elevation: The ability to jump high in the air and give the impression of remaining suspended there for an instant. Enchainement: A combination of steps into a dance phrase. Entrechat: A vertical jump in fifth position, with the feet changing in the air, twice (entrechat quatre), three times (entrechat six), four times (entrechat huit), and, exceptionally, five times (entrechat dix). The term entrechat deux is not used: when the feet beat once and change this is called changement battu or royale. In all of these the dancer returns to fifth position. In entrechat trois, cinq, and sept the dancer lands on one foot with the other touching the supporting leg after one, two, or three beats. Epaulement: Literally, "shouldering." The slight turning of the shoulders, croise or efface, in relation to the head and legs, distinguishes the classic style, particularly of the Italian, Russian, and British Schools. In the old French and the Danish Schools it is rarely used. Fouette: Literally, "whipped." A turning step, usually done in a series, in which the working leg whips out to the side in a rond de jambe and then in to the knee as the dancer turns on the supporting leg, rising on to the pointe at each revolution. The 32 fouettes performed by Odile in Swan Lake, Act III, are a supposed touchstone of female virtuosity. Glissade: Literally, "sliding." A linking step in which the dancer moves to the side, front, or back from fifth position to fourth or fifth position, with a moment of transition in which the feet should be fully stretched. Jete: Literally, "thrown." A jump from one foot on to the other. It may be a small jump, or large (grand jete), landing in a position such as arabesque or attitude. The jump may be beaten (battu) or done with a turn (en tournant). Leotard: A one-piece garment covering the whole torso, with or without sleeves, worn with tights for practice or, in many contemporary ballets, as a stage costume. Originally designed by the French acrobat Jules Leotard (1830-70). Maitre or maitresse de ballet: See ballet master/mistress. Pas: Literally, "step." The technical terms for ballet steps often include the word pas, or sometimes temps (literally "time"), as in pas de chat or temps de poisson. Pas is also used in the sense of "dance," as in pas de deux/trois/quatre (dance for two, three, four people) or more, or as in pas de l'ombre (dance of the shadow) from Ondine, or pas des patineurs (dance of the skaters). Pas d'action signifies a sequence in a ballet in which the narrative is carried forward by means of dancing, as in the so-called Rose Adagio in Act I of The Sleeping Beauty. Pirouette: A complete turn of the body performed on one leg; the working leg may be placed against the ankle or drawn up to the knee of the supporting leg, or extended to the side or to the back, in arabesque or attitude. Plie: Literally, a "bending." The first exercises done in every class to loosen the muscles, the foundation of the dancer's technique. The dancer stands erect at the barre and slowly bends the knees, keeping them in line with the turned-out feet. Plies are practiced in all five positions. Nearly every step begins and ends in demi-plie (half-), giving impetus to a jump and cushioning a landing. Pointe: The tip of the toe. Women, and infrequently men, dance sur les pointes in blocked shoes. The introduction of this technique in the early 19th century made possible the development of female virtuosity, with such feats as multiple fouettes and sustained balances on one leg. Demi-pointe is when the dancer stands with the toes spread flat on the floor and the rest of the foot raised (releve) from the metatarsal. Port de bras: Literally, "carriage of the arms." Used in this general sense, and also to denote exercises designed to develop the graceful and harmonious use of the arms. For instance, when a dancer, at the barre, bends the whole torso forward and back, this exercise is called port de bras even though its correct execution involves the entire body. There are positions of the arms corresponding to positions of the feet. Positions: There are five basic positions of the feet in which all steps in classic ballet begin and end, with the legs turned out from the pelvis: First position: heels touching, feet in a straight line; Second position: feet wide apart, in a straight line; Third position: one foot in front of the other, and heel against the instep; Fourth position: feet apart, one in front of the other, opposite fifth; Fifth position: one foot in front of the other, the heel against the joint of the big toe. Releve: Literally, "lifted." The raising of the body on to half or full pointe. Rond de jambe: Literally, "circle of the leg." The working leg describes a circle either on the floor (a terre) or in the air (en l'air). Sissonne: A jump from both feet on to one foot with the working leg opening to the side, front, or back in a scissor-like motion. May be performed with a beat. Tour: A complete turn of the body. See pirouette. Tour en l'air, a turn in the air, executed as the dancer jumps up vertically. Male dancers are expected to perform double tours en l'air, and some are capable of triples. Rarely performed by women. Tournant, en: Literally, "turning." Many steps may be performed, either singly or in series, while the dancer makes a revolution of the body or describes a circle on the floor. Turn-out (French: en dehors.): The turning out of the legs from the pelvis, essential for speed, flexibility, elegance, and the ability to move in any direction. Tutu: Ballet skirt, either calf-length as in romantic ballets (as in Les Sylphides) or projecting straight out at hip level as in classic ballets (as in Swan Lake), with many layers of ruffles underneath. The term tutu is actually a slang word referring to the latter part of the costume, or rather to the part of the anatomy it conceals. Variation: Solo dance. \TDavid\t \TVaughan\t Bibliography: Anderson, Jack, Ballet and Modern Dance: A Concise History (1986); Balanchine, George, and Mason, Francis, Balanchine's Book of Ballets (1977); Beaumont, Cyril, Complete Book of Ballets (1949); Benois, Aleksandr, Memoirs, 2 vols., trans. by Moura Budberg (1960); Chujoy, Anatole, and Manchester, P. W., The Dance Encyclopedia (1967); Clarke, Mary, and Vaughan, David, eds., The Encyclopedia of Dance & Ballet (1977); Cooper, Douglas, Picasso Theatre (1968); Croce, Arlene, Afterimages (1977); Denby, Edwin, Looking at the Dance (1949; repr. 1968); Guest, Ivor, The Romantic Ballet in Paris (1966); Karsavina, Tamara, Theatre Street (1961); Kirstein, Lincoln, Dance (1969) and Movement and Metaphor (1970); Koegler, Horst, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Ballet, 2d ed. (1982); Noverre, Jean Georges, Letters on Dancing and Ballets, trans. by Cyril Beaumont (1966); Roslavleva, Natalia, Era of the Russian Ballet (1966); Stravinsky, Vera, and Craft, Robert, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (1979). See also: \Tchoreography\t; \Tdance\t; \Tfolk dance\t; \Tmusical comedy\t; \Topera\t; \Ttheater architecture and staging\t.