Massachusetts is a small state in the northeastern United States that has made contributions to the nation far greater than its size might suggest. The state, roughly rectangular in shape, is the sixth smallest in area. It lies at the center of New England, with Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine to the north and Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south. New York is to the west, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. The state, known legally as a commonwealth, was explored in the late 16th and early 17th centuries and was first permanently settled at \TPlymouth\t in 1620. One of the thirteen original states, it was the sixth to ratify the Constitution. \TBoston\t, the capital of Massachusetts, is the de facto capital of New England. The name Massachusetts is thought to be of Algonquian origin and means "near the great hill." The state has made many contributions to the nation in its cultural growth, its political activities, and its concern for social welfare. Like many of its neighboring states Massachusetts is working hard to maintain progress in the face of recent economic difficulties. LAND AND RESOURCES Massachusetts displays a wide variety of topography within its small area, exhibiting on a small scale the landscapes found along the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the Appalachian mountain system. The western border of the state lies along the crest of the Taconic Mountains. Immediately to the east are the \TBerkshire Hills\t and the deep, narrow, north-south trending Berkshire Valley, eroded from soft limestones. Farther to the east is a high, rolling plateau of ancient crystalline rocks, deeply carved by Connecticut River tributaries. The plateau gives way abruptly to the Connecticut River valley, which is nearly flat and up to 16-32 km (10-20 mi) wide. Its soils--a deep reddish brown derived from Triassic-age sandstones--are the state's most fertile. Between the valley and the Atlantic Ocean is a hilly region of forests, lakes, and a few low mountains. Elevations decrease from west to east. Near the shoreline the topography displays little relief. Southeastern Massachusetts is a low, sandy plain, interrupted by occasional moraines and other glacial debris. \TCape Cod\t is an extension of glacial materials that reaches far into the open ocean. It is composed entirely of sand and gravel; bedrock lies far below sea level. The coast of Massachusetts varies from an occasional rocky headland, such as Cape Ann, to long sandy beaches, most of which are made up of glacial materials. \TMartha's Vineyard\t, \TNantucket Island\t, and the Elizabeth Islands lie offshore to the south. Massachusetts is underlain with Paleozoic or pre-Paleozoic rocks. Igneous and metamorphic rocks, such as granites, gneisses, and schists, are common. Only the major river valleys contain sedimentary rocks on a large scale. Fossils are rare, and minerals of industrial value almost nonexistent. Soils Massachusetts soils are derived in large part from glacial detritus. Soils are composed of glacial till and are thin, relatively barren of mineral nutrients, and choked with boulders. The latter are the source of the many stone walls found in Massachusetts. Pockets of loams were pressed into agricultural use in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the floodplains of the major river valleys--especially the Connecticut--are still extensively cultivated. The soils are often alluvial, rich in nutrients, and relatively level. In areas underlain by extensive glacial sand deposits, soils tend to be dry and infertile. Climate Massachusetts has four distinct seasons, occupying a position between eastern Canada, with its short summers and long winters, and the mid-Atlantic and southeastern United States, with long summers and short winters. The climate is governed in part by its position in the path of several common storm patterns that cross the continent between 30 deg and 50 deg north latitude. A second major climatic element is the proximity of the state to the sea and the Gulf Stream. Much of eastern Massachusetts has milder temperatures and receives less snowfall than the central and western parts of the state. Massachusetts has experienced many hurricanes. Precipitation varies little from one part of the state to another, averaging 1,067 mm (42 in) annually. Snow depths vary considerably, with the western mountains receiving 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft) during the winter. Because of its coastal location Massachusetts has a narrow temperature range. July mean temperatures range from 22 deg C (71 deg F) in the west to 19 deg C (67 deg F) on Cape Cod. In the winter the contrast is reversed with the coastal areas significantly warmer (-1 deg C/31 deg F) than the interior (-4 deg C/24 deg F). Drainage No single river dominates Massachusetts, and the two largest streams in Massachusetts both rise outside the state. The \TConnecticut River\t rises in Canada and flows south across the state to Connecticut, providing extensive farmland as well as waterpower sites. The \TMerrimack\t rises in New Hampshire, its lower course entering Massachusetts near \TLowell\t and passing eastward to the sea at Newburyport. Smaller streams include the \THousatonic River\t, which drains the southern portion of the Berkshire Valley, and the Blackstone, Charles, Deerfield, and Taunton rivers. Rapids and waterfalls, common along virtually all Massachusetts waterways, provided power for colonial grist and sawmills and later for textile factories. Extensive tidal marshes lie between the beaches and the mainland. These are important breeding grounds and sources of food for marine life and waterfowl. The largest body of water in Massachusetts is Quabbin Reservoir. This lake provides fresh water to the residents of greater Boston, 105 km (65 mi) to the east. Vegetation and Animal Life The vegetation in Massachusetts is diversified, containing both the deciduous forests of oak, hickory, and maple common to the south in Connecticut, as well as the coniferous forests of pine, spruce, hemlock, and balsam fir found to the north. Much of the land was cleared for agriculture in colonial days, only to be abandoned after the settlement of the Middle West. Such abandoned farmland has since returned to forest. The forests often display an understory of rhododendron, mountain laurel, witch hazel, shadbush, and dogwood. Most indigenous wildlife has long since been driven away by human settlement or diminished by three centuries of hunting. Small mammals such as fox, rabbits, raccoons, skunks, and squirrels are abundant, but bear, bobcat, and deer are increasingly rare. Birds--both terrestrial and waterfowl--are common. Resources Massachusetts has few endemic resources. In colonial days small quantities of iron, silver, copper, and other metals were extracted and smelted. Charcoal was produced from the abundant hardwood forests, and waterpower sites for mills and forges were abundant. In the past century, however, no petroleum or natural gas and little coal have been found in Massachusetts. Granite, lime, sandstone, and sand and gravel have become the state's dominant mineral resources. Environmental Protection Massachusetts has pioneered in environmental protection. It was one of the first states to enact laws protecting songbirds and other forms of wildlife, coastal tidal marshes, and interior wetlands. Statutes were enacted long ago to preserve shade trees bordering country roads. Later, large tracts of land were set aside as wildlife refuges by the state and federal governments. PEOPLE At the end of the American Revolution, Massachusetts was the fourth largest state in population. By 1990 it ranked thirteenth, with an official census count of 6,029,051. The population is concentrated today in the eastern part of the state, particularly in metropolitan Boston. More than 60% of the residents live in towns and cities with populations exceeding 25,000. The population grew nearly 5% from 1980 to 1990; the fastest-growing ethnic segments were Asian and Hispanic. \TLowell\t, \TSpringfield\t, and \TWorcester\t have populations of more than 100,000, and the Boston metropolitan area has more than 2.8 million residents. Population Composition In its first 200 years, the population of Massachusetts was virtually pure English in composition, with only an occasional free black or French refugee. In the early 19th century large numbers of Irish came to the state, primarily to Boston. Later, southern Europeans, particularly Italians, arrived in Boston along with large numbers of Polish and Russian Jews, Portuguese, and French- and some English-speaking Canadians. After World War II, Boston attracted increasing numbers of blacks, most of whom live in the greater Boston area. In recent years, Massachusetts has experienced a steady influx of Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and other Caribbean nationals. The Chinese population is the most rapidly expanding component of its population; the number of Mexican-Americans remains extremely small. Roman Catholics form the largest religious group. Membership in the United Church of Christ and the Episcopal church is also significant. Education Massachusetts has been a pioneer in education. Nearly every form of education currently in use in the United States was conceived of and implemented there. The first public secondary school, \TBoston Latin School\t, was founded in 1635 and the first college, Harvard, in the following year. The first vocational school was opened in 1821 and the first high school for girls in 1826. As early as 1642 laws were enacted to establish schools in cities and towns and to require compulsory education. While public education at the elementary and secondary level enjoyed strong support, higher public education languished, due in part to the many private institutions in the state. Since 1950, however, the state has begun a major program to expand and upgrade the state university and state colleges and to establish a statewide system of community colleges (see \TMassachusetts, state universities and colleges of\t). Higher education programs--both public and private--are furnished to more students on a per capita basis than in any other state except California. Among the leading private institutions of higher education in Massachusetts are \TAmherst College\t, \TBoston University\t, \THarvard University\t, the \TMassachusetts Institute of Technology\t, \TSmith College\t, \TWellesley College\t, and \TWilliams College\t. Culture Massachusetts has benefited from several factors in building its strong base for the arts. Cultural institutions were established early in its history, and they have received continuous nourishment from a growing number of philanthropists. Libraries were perhaps the first institutions to receive attention. Massachusetts pioneered in legislation establishing public library systems. Music has long been important in the state. The Handel and Haydn Society of Boston, founded in 1815, continues to perform. The \TBoston Symphony Orchestra\t is one of the finest in the country, and its associated \TBoston Pops Orchestra\t draws large crowds to summer concerts. The \TBerkshire Music Festival\t at Tanglewood offers both instruction in music and performances for the public. The \TNew England Conservatory of Music\t is located in Boston. The colonial society of Massachusetts supported such painters as Gilbert \TStuart\t and John Singleton \TCopley\t and artisans like Paul \TRevere\t. Many fine examples of their work are contained in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Other museums include the \TGardner Museum\t and Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology in the Boston area, the Clark Art Institute in Williamstown, and the Worcester Art Museum. Historical Sites The state's 350 years of continuous settlement have left Massachusetts with many historical houses, forts, factories, and battlegrounds. Remnants of earlier transportation systems include the nation's first railroad, primitive canals, and extensive early turnpikes. Entire villages have been re-created with scrupulous care. Boston's historic sites are linked by a Freedom Trail, supervised by the National Park Service. Along the trail are the Old North Church, Paul Revere's house, \TFaneuil Hall\t, and the Old State House. The early Plymouth settlement is memorialized by several monuments and a re-creation of the original primitive settlement. The battle areas associated with Lexington and Concord have been designated a National Historic Park. Many cities and towns have established historic districts. Several private organizations such as the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities serve as caretakers of important historic buildings. Homes of famous authors open to the public include those of Herman \TMelville\t, Louisa May \TAlcott\t, Ralph Waldo \TEmerson\t, and John Greenleaf \TWhittier\t. The site of the Walden Pond cabin where Henry David \TThoreau\t lived has recently been found and excavated. Recreation and Sports Massachusetts has three major recreation seasons. In the summer many residents and tourists enjoy the state's sandy beaches, particularly in the Cape Cod National Seashore. In the interior many lakes and ponds provide water recreation. Extensive hiking trails, some a part of the \TAppalachian Trail\t, are open to all, and 7 state parks and 18 state forests are available for public enjoyment. Winter activities include skiing, skating, and tobogganing. Autumn travelers can view spectacular foliage from marked highway trails. The state supports many sports organizations, including the New England Patriots and the Boston Bruins, Celtics, and Red Sox. Communications Massachusetts is well served by all forms of modern communications. Nearly every city has its own daily newspaper, and weekly papers serve small towns and rural areas. The internationally distributed Christian Science Monitor is headquartered in Boston. The Boston broadcasting station WGBH is a major producer of programming for the Public Broadcasting Service. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Until recently Massachusetts had more workers in manufacturing than in any other economic sector. An early start was given to manufacturing in Massachusetts by its numerous grist and saw mills and by its artisans and cottage industries. By the time of the American Revolution nearly every town produced leather and textile goods, metalware, and furniture. The Industrial Revolution came early to Massachusetts, and the first half of the 19th century saw the flowering of nearly all of its present manufacturing cities. Textile weaving was the most important industry, followed by shoe manufacturing. During the 20th century most of these low-value consumer goods industries have moved elsewhere and have been replaced by industries of higher value such as electronics. Several major computer manufacturers are located in the state. Energy Massachusetts uses hydropower for only a small share of its electricity. Petroleum provides the bulk of the state's power. There are nuclear power plants located in Plymouth and Rowe. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing Massachusetts is not a major agricultural state. Dairying is a primary source of farm income along with poultry raising. Many farms now grow specialty crops such as cranberries, apples, tobacco, and vegetables. The number of farms and amount of land under cultivation is decreasing. Forest-related industries are negligible. Small quantities of hardwoods are cut for furniture and firewood, and there is some production of white pine lumber. Fishing has long been an important economic activity in Massachusetts; \TGloucester\t, \TNew Bedford\t, and Boston are its major ports. In recent years Massachusetts has ranked highest among the New England states in the value of its commercial catch. Cod and lobster are among the major species caught. Tourism Tourism has grown in economic importance in Massachusetts since World War II. The state offers both a rich history and recreational opportunities. Many cities and towns have historic sites and exhibits for tourists. Transportation and Trade Transportation in Massachusetts relies heavily upon the automobile and truck. The state has an excellent highway network, including long stretches of the Interstate Highway System. Many modern airports serve the state, and Boston ranks rather high in both the nation and the world in annual air passenger traffic. It is also an important shipping center. The state's once-fine railroad network has been radically reduced, but both Amtrak and Conrail have service within the state. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS The constitution of Massachusetts was adopted in 1780. As amended, it provides for a governor and lieutenant governor who serve 4-year terms. The governor appoints a cabinet of nine secretaries. Each secretary, in turn, supervises a number of related departments. The legislature is known as the General Court and consists of the 40-member Senate and the 160-member House of Representatives. Legislators are elected to 2-year terms. The highest court in Massachusetts is the Supreme Judicial Court. A hierarchy of trial courts operates within the county structure. The 14 county administrative bodies in Massachusetts are relatively weak, with powers limited to managing the court system, operating various correctional institutions, and overseeing, in part, highway construction and health services. Counties are run by elected commissioners. The state has 351 cities and towns. No contrast exists between incorporated or unincorporated areas as elsewhere in the country. Cities are usually governed by a mayor and a board of aldermen or city councillors. Towns, run by selectmen, hold many of the powers vested in counties elsewhere. Operating funds come largely from real estate taxes. These, however, were significantly reduced in some areas by a property tax reduction law, dubbed "Proposition 21/2," that was approved by the state's voters in 1980. One unusual feature of Massachusetts government is the Metropolitan District Commission. This body maintains water supplies, sewerage disposal, recreation facilities, and certain highways in Boston and its environs. This pioneering effort toward metropolitan government is more than 100 years old. A stronghold of the Democratic party, the state has 11 legislators in the U.S. House of Representatives, the great majority of whom are Democrats. The state legislature is also largely composed of members of that party. Since 1900, however, Republicans--including Calvin Coolidge--have served as governor more often than Democrats. HISTORY Four themes dominate the history of this small but influential state: the importance of the individual and personal freedom and liberty; mercantile activity and entrepreneurship; inventiveness and industrial genius; and pioneering social action. The pre-European population of Massachusetts was a small number of relatively independent native American tribes. In the late 16th century, European ships explored the New England coast, led by Giovanni da \TVerrazano\t in 1524 and Bartholomew \TGosnold\t in 1602. Their explorations were based in part upon the information of Europeans on fishing voyages who had reached North America during the 16th century. The Colonial Period Interest in the commercial exploitation of New England grew in Europe, especially in England. The first permanent settlers in Massachusetts, however, were not fortune hunters but the religious group known as the \TPilgrims\t, whose first landfall was Cape Cod rather than their original Virginia destination. In December 1620 they landed at Plymouth, where they established a colony according to terms drawn up in the Mayflower Compact before debarking (see \TMayflower\t; \TPlymouth Colony\t). The Pilgrims were soon followed by other English settlers. The Dorchester Company founded a colony at Gloucester (1623) on Cape Ann and, after Gloucester's failure, at Naumkeag (\TSalem\t, 1626). In 1628 a party of Puritans led by John \TEndecott\t settled at Salem under the auspices of the New England Company. The following year the \TMassachusetts Bay Company\t was chartered as a successor to the New England Company; its first large group of Puritan settlers arrived in 1630 under the leadership of John Winthrop (see \TWinthrop\t family). Winthrop established Boston as the capital of the colony and, together with cleric John \Tcotton\t, dominated its affairs for the next two decades. \TPuritanism\t was the overriding religiopolitical force in the Bay Colony, whose leaders sought to establish a Bible commonwealth. Citizenship (called freemanship) was restricted (until 1664) to church members. Religious dissenters, most notably Anne \THutchinson\t and Roger \TWilliams\t, were banished from the colony. Within the framework of religious restriction, however, the colony early developed representative institutions. In 1632 the freemen gained the right to elect the governor directly, and in 1634 the freemen of each town won the right to send deputies to the General Court. Throughout this early period new immigrants arrived, settling along the coast and a short distance inland. Farming, lumbering, and fishing were the principal occupations. Movement into the interior brought conflict with the Indians, as in the \TPequot War\t (1637). In 1643 the Bay Colony formed the New England Confederation with Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven colonies to coordinate defense. The confederation acted most effectively during \TKing Philip's War\t (1675-76). Continual disagreements arose between the colonists and the English government, especially after the restoration of the English monarchy in 1660. Finally, in 1684 the colony's charter was revoked, and in 1686 the Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies were included in the Dominion of New England under Sir Edmund \TAndros\t. News of the \TGlorious Revolution\t in England prompted uprisings against Andros and the dissolution of the Dominion in 1689. Two years later a royal charter was issued that incorporated Plymouth Colony and the Province of Maine within Massachusetts but placed the extended colony under a royal governor and removed the religious qualification for voting. The authority of the Puritan clergy, already much weakened, was further diminished as a result of the \TSalem Witch Trials\t of 1692. The clergy, notably Increase and Cotton Mather (see \TMather\t family), were blamed for fanning the hysteria that led to the execution of 20 people. Massachusetts experienced accelerated growth in the early 18th century; settlements arose in the interior, and the Connecticut Valley was settled. Mills were built along the smaller rivers and streams to grind grain, saw logs, forge iron, and process wool. Seaport towns grew and prospered as a lucrative overseas trade flourished. Ships carried timber and salt fish to the Caribbean and returned with molasses and sugar. Rum, distilled in \TMedford\t and Newburyport, was carried to West Africa along with cloth and simple utensils to be traded for slaves who were, in turn, carried to the Caribbean Islands and South America. These routes came to be known as the "Triangular Trade." Rich shipowners and sea captains competed to build the grandest houses along the shore. From the Revolution to the Civil War The various taxes put forth by the British after 1730 for replenishment of the British treasury were unpopular in thriving Massachusetts. The so-called Molasses Act, Sugar Act, and \TStamp Act\t, followed by the \TTownshend Acts\t, stimulated colonial opposition that led to the \TBoston Massacre\t of 1770 and the \TBoston Tea Party\t in 1773. The British closed the port of Boston, and 2 years later, a search-and-destroy mission by British troops precipitated the Battles of \TLexington and Concord\t. Massachusetts was briefly the focus of attention at the start of the \TAmerican Revolution\t. In June 1775 the Battle of \TBunker Hill\t proved to be a costly victory for the British. In 1776 they evacuated Boston, and fighting ended on Massachusetts soil. Massachusetts patriots, including John \TAdams\t, Samuel \TAdams\t, and John \THancock\t, were leaders in the Revolution, and the state continued to provide leadership for the young American republic. Massachusetts had regained its economic momentum when the embargoes and trade restrictions of the early 19th century again curbed overseas trade. General opposition to the \TWar of\t 1812 brought on talk of secession at the \THartford Convention\t (1814-15). The war finally ended with minimal help from Massachusetts, however, and economic growth again accelerated. The decades before the Civil War were prosperous ones. Farming spread into the farthest valleys of the Berkshires, often into areas ill suited to cultivation. Canals, toll roads, and railroads were built connecting all of the principal cities. Factories were built along the rivers. The textile industry, which was to dominate the state's economy for the next century, gained its initial momentum under capitalists like Francis Cabot \TLowell\t. Workers were first recruited from local farms and villages, but in the mid-1840s the first non-English immigrants, the Irish, arrived. The long British cultural hegemony was over. The mill cities grew rapidly, sometimes doubling their population in less than a decade. As waterpower sites proved inadequate for large-scale factory expansion, steam engines powered by coal were used. Nevertheless, mill workers expressed growing discontent over working conditions. The Civil War was entered with great enthusiasm, especially because Massachusetts had a long history of \Tabolitionist\t sentiment. The state was a major arsenal for the war, with guns, blankets, tents, and shoes produced in vast quantities. Economic Change The late 19th century was the state's greatest industrial period. Massachusetts was a national leader in the production not only of textiles and shoes but also of textile and shoemaking machinery, silverware, machine tools, glass, paper, rubber products, locomotives, guns, and fire engines. From 1900 to 1910, however, many factories, which had become increasingly obsolescent, closed. Textile companies established new mills and new corporate headquarters in the southern states. The tenements of the mill cities were aging and unable to meet the most modest health and building standards. Service industries, however, were beginning to assume a new role in the Massachusetts economy. Banking and insurance, important in the era of industrial expansion and transportation growth, reached out for new markets in the West. Retailing and wholesaling expanded to serve the new urban populations. Many office and clerical jobs were created in cities like Boston, Worcester, and Springfield. The Depression of the 1930s was especially severe in those communities already hard hit by the closing of textile and shoe factories. World War II temporarily reversed this trend as the state became a leading producer of war materiel. The traditional industries of shipbuilding and machinery were greatly expanded, along with local development of new products such as radar, sonar, and jet engines. In the post-World War II era Massachusetts has played a national leadership role in social and political activities. The presidency of John F. \TKennedy\t recalled the long political tradition of the state. Agriculture and fishing are in decline, but beginning in the 1950s, Massachusetts's economy generally was revitalized, with electronics, nonelectrical machinery, and computer-oriented industries stimulating growth. Service industries continued to expand, especially in the areas of banking, insurance, health care, and higher education. Democratic Governor Michael \TDukakis\t claimed credit of the state's apparently strong economy in his unsuccessful campaign for the presidency in 1988. In fact, the economy was faltering badly, and Massachusetts entered the 1990s in a recession. George K. Lewis Bibliography: \TGeneral\t: Bearse, Ray, ed., Massachusetts: A Guide to the Pilgrim State, 2d ed. (1971); Howe, Henry F., Massachusetts: There She Is, Behold Her (1960); Mullin, John R., and Thomas, Carol J., eds., Massachusetts Cities and Towns (1985); Tree, Christina, The Other Massachusetts (1987); Whitehill, Walter M., Massachusetts: From the Berkshires to the Cape (1977). \Thistory\t: Adams, Brooks, The Emancipation of Massachusetts, rev. ed. (1919; repr. 1962); Adams, James T., The Founding of New England, rev. ed. (1962); Bradford, William, Of Plymouth Plantation: 1620-1647, ed. by Samuel E. Morison (1952); Brooks, Van Wyck, The Flowering of New England (1936); Brown, Richard D., Massachusetts: A Bicentennial History (1978); Bushman, Richard L., King and People in Provincial Massachusetts (1985); Caffrey, Kate, The Mayflower (1974); Fosler, R. Scott, The New Economic Role of American States (1987); Hart, Albert B., ed., Commonwealth History of Massachusetts, 5 vols. (1927-1930; repr. 1966); Miller, Perry, The New England Mind: From Colony to Province (1953); Morison, Samuel Eliot, The Builders of the Bay Colony (1930; repr. 1978) and The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783-1860, rev. ed. (1961). \Teconomics\t, \LPolitic\ls AND \Tgovernment\t: Fosler, R. Scott, The New Economic Role of American States (1987); Levitan, Donald, and Mariner, Elwyn E., Your Massachusetts Government, 10th ed. (1984).