The Republic of Ireland (Eire) covers almost 85% of the island bearing its name. \TDublin\t is its capital. Twenty-six of the island's 32 counties are within the Republic. The six northeastern counties form \TNorthern Ireland\t, which is part of the United Kingdom. This partition dates from 1920-22, before which the whole island was under British rule. Ireland is separated from Great Britain by the \TIrish Sea\t and otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean. LAND AND RESOURCES Physically, Ireland is a detached fragment of the European mainland, separated from it by the shallow seas of the continental shelf. Most of the country is a lowland less than 150 m (500 ft) above sea level and underlain by limestone rocks of Carboniferous age. The surface is covered by glacial drift, a legacy of the Pleistocene ice age. In places the drift has been shaped into distinctive landforms, as in long gravel ridges (eskers) of the midlands and hundreds of small hills (drumlins) that form a continuous belt across the island from Clew Bay in the west. The central lowland is surrounded by a discontinuous rim of mountains. The oldest of these, mainly of Cambrian and Precambrian age, can be found in the north and west of the country, the remnants of a mountain range that once was a chain extending from Ireland through Scotland to Scandinavia. Quartzite rocks give rise to rugged mountain scenery as in Errigal (752 m/2,466 ft) and Muckish (670 m/2,197 ft) in \TDonegal\t; Croagh Patrick (765 m/2,510 ft) in \TMayo\t; and the Twelve Bens or Pins in County \TGalway\t. A former ice cover has steepened many of the slopes and scoured river valleys, some of which, like Killary Harbour in Mayo, have been flooded by the sea to form fjords. In the south of Ireland a series of parallel ridges of Devonian sandstone, separated by valleys floored with Carboniferous limestones and shales, are a continuation of the Hercynian structures of central Europe and Brittany. The ridges rise in elevation westward, culminating at Carrantuohill, the highest mountain in the country. The Lakes of Killarney, famous for their scenic beauty, are situated in that area. A geologically recent depression of the land allowed the sea to enter the lower reaches of the river valleys, forming a deeply indented coastline with many natural harbors. In the southeast of Ireland, granites of Devonian age form rounded uplands stretching for 129 km (80 mi) in a northeasterly direction through counties \TWexford\t and \TWicklow\t to the south shore of Dublin Bay. The eastern slopes of these uplands are penetrated by the deep, glacially modified valleys of Glendalough and Glenmalure. Soils Most Irish soils have been formed from glacial drift, and because limestone is the most common bedrock, some of them are slightly alkaline. The lowland soils are chiefly fertile brown and gray-brown podzolics, but some true podzols occur on the hills. Gleyed soils are common where there is impeded drainage, especially in the north-central lowland. Under past conditions of extreme wetness and acidity, peat accumulated to form the raised bogs that now cover many thousands of acres in the midlands. Though useless for agriculture, these bogs are an important source of peat fuel. Peat also blankets the higher hills and supports a heathland vegetation, which provides rough grazing for sheep. Climate All of Ireland has a cool maritime climate. July has temperatures varying from 16 deg C (61 deg F) in the south to 14 deg C (57 deg F) in the north, while winters are relatively mild, with January temperatures ranging from 7 deg C (44 deg F) in Valentia to 4 deg C (40 deg F) in the northeast. Prevailing westerly winds pick up moisture as they cross the warm Atlantic ocean, and heaviest rainfalls of 1,524 to 2,540 mm (60 to 100 in) occur where these winds first meet the western mountains. About 80% of the country has annual rainfall of between 762 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in). The eastern coastal strip is relatively dry, with Dublin recording only 711 mm (28 in) annually. The annual rainfall distribution shows a minimum in late spring, a relatively dry fall, and heaviest rainfall occurring in August and December. The southeast of the country has the highest percentage of sunshine. Drainage Ireland has numerous rivers and lakes. Much of the central lowland is drained by the River \TShannon\t, which is 370 km (230 mi) long and navigable for most of its length. It has a gentle gradient and expands into a number of lakes, notably loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg. A few miles from \TLimerick\t, the Shannon's rapid fall to sea level is used to generate electricity. In the south of Ireland, rivers such as the Blackwater, Lee, and Bandon flow west to east between the sandstone ridges. Their stream patterns are unusual in that their courses make right-angled bends, cutting southward through these ridges to form narrow, steep-sided valleys. In parts of Clare and Galway the porosity of the limestone bedrock has resulted in the creation of an underground drainage system. Vegetation and Animal Life Little of the natural vegetation remains in Ireland. Remnants of oak woodland, which once covered much of the country, survive only in \TKillarney\t and in a few isolated mountain valleys. The peat bogs support heather, moss, and fern. Arctic-Alpine flora such as gentian are found near sea level on the limestone hills of County \TClare\t, and a subtropical Mediterranean type of vegetation survives in the southwest because of the area's mild winters. Fauna is limited. The only reptile is a small lizard; larger mammals include deer, the pine marten, fox, badger, squirrel, and hare. Seabirds are numerous on the coastal fringes. Resources Ireland's main resource is its agricultural land, comprising more than 70% of the country. With less than 5% under tree cover, it is one of the least forested countries in Europe despite reforestation. The main mineral resources are the base metals lead, silver, and zinc. Coal is scarce and of poor quality, but peat is extensively used for fuel. Workable deposits of gypsum, dolomite, and barites have been found. Limestone, granite, sand, clay, and gravel are plentiful, and natural gas exists in modest quantities off the southern coast. PEOPLE Ireland was colonized from Europe. For more than 5,000 years, successive waves of settlers arrived from the island of Great Britain or from the continent, each group contributing to the cultural heritage of the modern Irish nation. The Celtic element (see \TCelts\t) remains dominant, but the east has been particularly influenced by the Anglo-Normans. Their initial invasion in 1170 was followed by subsequent immigration of settlers from England, Wales, and Scotland. The present population of Ireland is, therefore, of mixed origin. The first official language is Irish, but English is recognized as the second official language. (See \TCeltic languages\t.) English is universally spoken, although 27% of the population know both Irish and English. Irish is more widely used in the west, where, in limited areas, it remains the first language of the people. Religion Freedom of conscience and free practice and profession of religion are guaranteed to every citizen under the constitution. Ninety-four percent of the people are Roman Catholics. The non-Roman Catholic population is composed largely of Anglicans, with a few Presbyterians and Methodists. In southeast Ireland non-Roman Catholics comprise 10% of the population, whereas in the three counties of \TUlster\t that are part of the Republic, they account for 10 to 20%. Demography The population of Ireland, which expanded rapidly during the 18th and early 19th centuries, reached 8.1 million in 1841, prior to the great potato famine. The famine years, beginning in 1845, brought a sudden reversal of the population trend due to deaths and emigration. Migration to North America and Great Britain continued over the next hundred years; by 1930 the population numbered little more than half the 1845 figure. Since 1961, the population has been increasing at an average of about 1% per annum. Ireland's density is fifth-lowest of all European nations. A distinctive feature of Ireland's rural population today is the low proportion to the total population of people in the 15-to-45-year age group. This low level results from the departure of working-age persons to seek employment in the cities or overseas. The population is fairly evenly distributed throughout the country. Higher densities can be found along the western seaboard, an area of small farms on poor land. Lower densities are associated with larger farms on the more fertile land in the east. Only 52% of the population live in towns of 1,500 inhabitants or more. Dublin, together with its seaport of \TDun Laoghaire\t, has more than one-fifth of the country's total population. Second in importance is the city of \TCork\t, followed by Limerick, \TWaterford\t, and \TGalway\t, all port cities. The largest inland town is \TKilkenny\t, with 9,838 inhabitants. The most urbanized areas of the country are the south and east; the population is increasing in these areas while densities elsewhere are declining. Migration has led to serious rural depopulation in the extreme west and in the \TLeitrim\t and \TRoscommon\t areas near Lough Allen. Education Elementary education is compulsory and free between the ages of 6 and 15 in schools financed by the state but managed by the various religious denominations. Postprimary education is provided by privately owned, state-subsidized schools and by state-owned comprehensive and vocational schools. Third-level education is provided by five teacher training colleges, nine regional technical colleges, a National Institute for Higher Education in Limerick, and two universities. The National University, founded in 1909, has constituent colleges in Dublin, Cork, and Galway. The University of Dublin was founded in 1592 and has one college, \TTrinity College\t. Health Ireland has a comprehensive health service. Persons in the lower income groups and their dependents are entitled to general medical care, hospitalization, and specialized treatment at government expense. Financial assistance for medical care is provided by the government on the basis of economic need. Adequate hospital accommodations are available, and the doctor-patient ratio approximates one to 1,000. The chief cause of death is heart disease, accounting for about one-third of all fatalities. The Arts A considerable body of literature written in the Irish language exists, dating from the 6th century; much of it is based on a rich oral tradition preserving the sagas of ancient Ireland. Gaelic literature continued to be common until the 17th century, when the use of English became more widespread. An Anglo-Irish writing style began with Jonathan \Tswift\t; in succeeding centuries many Irish writers and dramatists have become noteworthy, including Oliver \TGoldsmith\t, Richard Brinsley \TSheridan\t, Oscar \TWilde\t, James \TJoyce\t, George Bernard \TShaw\t, and Samuel \TBeckett\t. The development of the \TAbbey Theatre\t as the National Theatre of Ireland is associated with the work of Lady \TGregory\t, William Butler \TYeats\t, Sean O'CASEY, John Millington \TSynge\t, James \TStephens\t, and many others who, even though they wrote in English, drew their inspiration from Gaelic traditions and Irish rural life. For additional information, see \TIrish literature\t; \TIrish Literary Renaissance\t. Ireland is noted for its early Christian art in both metalwork and illuminated manuscripts. An example of the former is the Ardagh Chalice and, of the latter, the \TBook of Kells\t; both date from the 8th century (see \TCeltic art\t). The most noteworthy architectural structures of the country are the round towers and early Celtic churches built between 700 and 1150. A few of the great castles constructed by the Anglo-Norman invaders dating from 1170 are still intact, but most now lie in ruins. In contrast to these fortified buildings, elegant Georgian architecture dating from 1729 provides Dublin with many fine squares and public buildings. Merrion Square, Trinity College, the Custom House, the Four Courts, and the Bank of Ireland (formerly the parliament buildings) are examples. The main learned societies in the country are the Royal Irish Academy, incorporated in 1786, and the Royal Dublin Society, dating from 1731. The latter is concerned with the fostering of agriculture, science, and the arts; two major agricultural shows are held annually on its grounds at Ballsbridge. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES Throughout its history Ireland has been an agricultural country. Farming remains a major economic activity, employing nearly one-fifth of the work force. Almost 90% of the farms cover less than 250 ha (100 acres); 90% of the agricultural land is under pasture or hay. Dairying, usually by cooperatives, predominates in the south and in the north midlands; beef cattle are raised on the small farms in the west and fattened on the larger farms of the east. Sheep graze on the uplands. The main crops are barley for feeding and for malting, oats, wheat, potatoes, and sugar beets. Fishing employs 4,500 part-time and 2,000 full-time workers. The chief fish caught are cod, whiting, plaice, sole, haddock, herring, and mackerel. Lobsters, prawns, periwinkles, and other shellfish abound along the rocky coasts and have a ready market on the European continent. In an effort to improve fishing facilities, the government has designated five ports for special development. Howth on the east coast, Dunmore East on the south coast, and Castletown Bere, Galway, and Killybegs in the west. Ireland has long traditions in dairying, brewing, and textile weaving, but these activities employ only a small fraction of the population. In the 1930s the new state encouraged local industry, placing tariffs on imported goods so small-scale industries could develop to serve local needs. By 1950 this market had been saturated, and a decline in development necessitated a major change in government policy. Foreign-owned firms, especially those with export potential, were encouraged to locate in the country. In 1959 a special industrial estate was established at Shannon, close to the international airport, where goods are imported and exported without customs restrictions. Dozens of factories, employing thousands of workers, are now located there. Manufacturing currently employs 21% of the country's total work force; about one-fifth, are employed in the production of food and drink. Electric power is available everywhere from the national grid; imported coal and petroleum and local peat and coal generate 89% and hydropower 11%. Ireland maintains an economy of both public and private enterprises. The electric power network, along with the chemical, steel, and sugar industries, are state controlled. Unemployment rose from 7.4% in 1979 to 19.3% in 1986, after which it slowly declined; inflation, on the other hand, went down from 20% in 1981 to 3.1% in 1985-86, after which it slowly increased. Ireland has an extensive system of public roads, forming a dense network throughout the country. Railroads radiate from Dublin and provide passenger and freight facilities to all the major towns; the roads, however, now carry a much greater volume of traffic. Dublin is the chief seaport, handling about two-thirds of the seaborne trade. Numerous car ferries ply frequently between various British and Irish ports, and a direct car and passenger ferry travels from Rosslare to Le Havre, France. International airports are located at Dublin, Cork, and Shannon. Public transportation is state owned, including Aer Lingus, the national airline. A government corporation controls and operates the country's radio and television service. Irish-language radio stations broadcast from Kerry, Galway, and Donegal counties. The United Kingdom is Ireland's chief trading partner, accounting for 42% of external trade in 1990. In addition, the United States and Germany are important to the Irish foreign trade market. More than one-third of all exports are agricultural products; machinery and woolen textiles are also significant exports. Imports are dominated by manufactured goods, petroleum, and chemicals. Heavy dependence on costly imported fuel has created a balance-of-payments deficit. Tourism has become an important source of foreign currency. GOVERNMENT In the late 18th century, Ireland achieved self-government under an Anglo-Irish Protestant Ascendancy, but the Act of Union, effective in 1801, abolished the Dublin Parliament and linked Ireland politically with Britain. The modern independent state of Ireland dates from 1921 when, after a long and bitter struggle, the Irish Free State (Saorstat Eireann) was created. A new constitution was adopted on Dec. 29, 1937, making Ireland a member of the Commonwealth. The Free State was declared a republic and separated from the Commonwealth in 1949. The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy. Its constitution provides for a nonexecutive president elected by direct vote for a 7-year term. The national parliament is the Oireachtas, consisting of the president and two houses, Dail Eireann and Seanad Eireann. Dail Eireann's 166 members are elected through a system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. The electorate is composed of all Irish citizens aged 18 and over. The Seanad, or upper house, has 60 members, 11 of whom are nominated by the taoiseach, or prime minister. The remaining 49 are elected, 6 by the universities and 43 from panels of candidates selected on a vocational basis. The government is headed by the taoiseach, who is appointed by the president on the nomination of the Dail Eireann. The taoiseach, in turn, nominates from 7 to 15 Dail members to form his cabinet. The life of the Dail is 5 years, unless dissolved by the president on the advice of the taoiseach. Constitutional changes can be made only by a referendum to the people, as was done in 1971 when Ireland planned to become a member of the European Economic Community. Ireland had 4 ancient provinces: \TLeinster\t, \TMunster\t, \TConnacht\t, and Ulster. Today the Republic of Ireland is divided politically into 27 county councils (\TTipperary\t is divided for administrative purposes), 4 county borough corporations, 7 borough corporations, 49 urban district councils, and 28 town commissions. Local officials are elected for 5-year terms. The two major political parties, both conservative in outlook, are \TFianna Fail\t, founded by Eamon \Tde Valera\t in 1926, and \TFine Gael\t, formally established in 1933. Fianna Fail, led in recent years by John (Jack) \TLynch\t and Charles J. \THaughey\t, has dominated the government for much of the period since its foundation. Garret \TFitzGerald\t of Fine Gael was premier from June 1981 to March 1982, and from December 1982 until February 1987, when he was replaced by Haughey. In 1990, Mary Robinson, a left-wing lawyer, upset Fianna Fail's candidate to become Ireland's first woman president. Haughey resigned from office on Jan. 31, 1992, under pressure from economic problems and charges of corruption against some of his friends and associates. Albert Reynolds, of Haughey's Fianna Fail party, became the new prime minister in early February 1992. Since joining the European Community (EEC) in 1973, Ireland has benefited considerably from EEC financial aid. The status of Northern Ireland, which the Irish have always considered part of their national territory, has remained an irritant in relations with Britain, as have the terrorist activities of the \TIrish Republican Army\t in the North. Tension was eased somewhat in 1985 by an agreement between the two countries in which the Irish government moderated its claims to Northern Ireland, and in return was given a consultative voice in the affairs of the troubled province. Joseph P. Haughton Bibliography: Arnold, Bruce, What Kind of Country: Modern Irish Politics (1984); Bottigheimer, Karl S., Ireland and the Irish (1982); Chubb, Basil, The Government and Politics of Ireland, 2d ed., (1982); Cullen, L.M., Emergence of Modern Ireland (1981); De Breffny, Brian, ed., The Irish World: The Art and Culture of the Irish People (1977) and The Land of Ireland (1979); Donleavy, J. P., A Singular Country (1990); Donoghue, Denis, We Irish (1986); Foster, R. F., Modern Ireland, 1600-1972 (1989); Freeman, Thomas W., Ireland: A General and Regional Geography, 3d ed. (1965); Gillmor, Desmond, A Systematic Geography of Ireland (1971); Haughton, Joseph P., ed., Atlas of Ireland (1979); Mitchell, G. F., Irish Landscape (1976); Morris, Jan, Ireland: Your Only Place (1990); O'Brien, Edna, Vanishing Ireland (1987); Sharp, P., Irish Foreign Policy and the European Community (1990); Whittow, J. B., The Geology and Scenery in Ireland (1974).