The artistic tradition of India is one of the oldest and richest in the world. Beginning with prehistoric rock paintings, which are believed to go back to the 6th millennium BC, and finding expression in a vigorous school of modern art, the tradition spans about 8,000 years and has produced a large and varied artistic output. It comprises masterpieces in all major artistic media, such as architecture, sculpture, painting, metalwork, textiles, and ceramics. The true genius of the Indian artists has manifested itself most fully in sculpture, however. The outstanding works of classical \TGupta\t and medieval sculpture are rightly regarded as supreme achievements of world art. Unlike much of the great art of the Western world, they are the work of anonymous artisans who produced them not for their own fame or self-expression but in the service of religion at the request of kings and priests. Art created for purely aesthetic purposes only came into being in modern times under European influence and was alien to traditional Indian society. The most important influences on traditional Indian art were the religious ideas and institutions that inspired it. As in other artistic traditions of the East, religion played an important role in the development of Indian art, but perhaps nowhere else has there been a richer and more varied spiritual heritage. The three major influences were \TBuddhism\t, \THinduism\t, and \TIslam\t, but other cults such as \TJainism\t, \TTantra\t, and primitive fertility cults also played an important role. Although little is known about the religious beliefs of prehistoric India and the \TIndus civilization\t, it can be safely assumed that this art too served largely religious purposes. As stated in an ancient text, it is only with the help of images that the gods and goddesses can be visualized; it is for this reason that icons have played such an important part in religious worship in India. The other major influence was the extensive patronage of the arts by the various rulers and dynasties that controlled India throughout its history. The Mauryan emperor \TAsoka\t and the Kushan ruler Kanishka played a major role in the creation of Buddhist art, just as the Hindu kings sponsored the great temples of medieval times and the Mogul rulers commissioned the splendid palaces, mosques, and tombs of the Islamic period. It is doubtful that without this encouragement and support many of these magnificent artistic monuments would have come into being. Art of the Indus Civilization The earliest artistic tradition developed in the Indus Valley, with its centers in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa both located in present-day Pakistan. The Indus civilization flourished between about 2500 and 1500 BC. Its most notable artistic achievements are the numerous sculptures that, although small in scale, often display superb craftsmanship. They usually represent human figures or animals and were probably religious in character. Remarkable artifacts from Mohenjo-daro include the lithe, gracefully posed copper figure of a dancing girl (National Museum, New Delhi) and the more hieratic alabaster bust of a king-priest (National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi). Other outstanding works are the engraved seals with animals and inscriptions in a yet unidentified language that are carved in low relief from steatite. These small-scale art objects resemble seals found in ancient Mesopotamia, which suggests possible connections between the art of the Indus Valley and Sumer; some scholars have referred to this early art as Indo-Sumerian. At the same time, however, other features of the Indus seals are typically Indian and foreshadow iconographic themes and artistic motifs that later figure prominently in Hindu art; these include the sacred animals, the mother goddess, and the cult of the phallus. Particularly striking is the representation of a horned god surrounded by animals, found on one of the Harappan seals (National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi); this image anticipates the representation of Shiva as the lord of the animals that recurs in later Hindu art. Early Buddhist Art During the middle of the 2d millennium BC, India was invaded by \TAryan\t nomads who destroyed Mohenjo-daro and Harappa and brought an end to the Indus civilization. Having no artistic tradition of their own, it is unlikely that these invaders produced any distinctive art, although Vedic texts refer to palaces decorated with paintings and wood carvings. The resurgence of Indian art did not occur until the 3d century BC under the powerful emperor Asoka the Great of the \TMaurya\t dynasty (321-184 BC), which had its center in \TPataliputra\t (present-day Patna). Most of the art of this age is Buddhist, and, technically and aesthetically, it owes much to Achaemenid Persia. Among the most important artistic monuments of this age are the great pillars topped with enormous lotus capitals and lions, of which the best-preserved example is at Lauriya Nandangarh in northern India, dated 242 BC. Other important examples of early Buddhist art are the sensually modeled sculptures of Yakshi (female) and Yaksha (male), deities associated with fertility and wealth, and the great \Tstupa\t shrine-mounds such as those at \TBharhut\t and \TSanchi\t, surrounded by ornately carved gateways and railings. In this early art the Buddha is merely symbolized by a wheel, a lotus flower, or by his throne. Not until the Kushan period (AD c.50-250) was the historic Buddha represented in human form. The inspiration for this came from the late classical art of ancient Greece. The art of Kushan India, often referred to as Greco-Buddhist art, had two great centers: in the \TGandhara\t province of northwestern India, where the Western influence was more marked, and at Mathura in central India, where a more truly Indian artistic style evolved. An important school of Buddhist sculpture also existed in the south at \TAmaravati\t. Art of the Gupta Period The culmination of the Buddhist phase of Indian art occurred during the Gupta period (AD c.300-600), often called the classical period of Indian art. Unfortunately almost nothing remains of the great temples and magnificent palaces of this period; the rock-cut cave temples at \TAjanta\t, however, preserve a wealth of fresco-type wall paintings and sculptures dating from this age. The images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas (Buddhas of the future) give moving expression to the spiritual ideas of the Buddhist faith and show an artistic mastery and sophistication not present before that time. Although the bulk of Gupta art was devoted to the worship of the Buddhist deities, other works were devoted to Hinduism, which had experienced a marked revival and was to replace Buddhism entirely by the end of this period. Outstanding among these early Hindu artistic monuments is the Vishnu temple at Deogarh, with its impressive relief carvings. Also important in the evolution of later Hindu architecture are the temples at Aihole, which are among the earliest surviving religious edifices in India, and the rock-cut temples at Badami, both sponsored by the Chalukya dynasty (AD 550-642), which ruled the Deccan. It was in Buddhist art, however, that the Gupta period found its richest and artistically most important manifestation. Hindu Medieval Art Although Buddhist art continued to be produced in Bengal under the Pala dynasty (c.750-1100) and in Afghanistan, the dominant art of the medieval period of Indian history was Hindu in character. Beginning in the 7th century and lasting, at least in the south, to the 17th century, Hindu art represents one of the great highpoints in Indian and in world art. The magnificent rock carvings in the Shiva temple at \TElephanta\t in the Bay of Bombay and the great Kailasa temple at \TEllora\t are an impressive embodiment of the ideals of Hinduism and are among the greatest masterpieces ever created by Indian artists. Another outstanding group of Hindu monuments from the early medieval period are found at \TMahabalipuram\t, not far from Madras, where magnificent relief carvings and beautiful temples were created during the 7th and 8th centuries under the patronage of the Pallava dynasty (c.325-750). This artistic development peaked about AD 1000 when huge temple complexes with towering sikkharas (spires) and elaborate sculptural decorations were erected all over India. The finest of these are at \TKhajuraho\t, in north central India, with its sensuous carvings of loving couples often shown in ecstatic embrace, symbolizing the union between the soul and the deity. The largest group of such temples is at BHUBANESHWAR in Orissa, where no less than 1,000 sanctuaries were erected during this period. The most immense and ambitious of these temples is the Surya temple at \TKonarak\t, also in Orissa; the entire edifice takes the form of the giant horsedrawn sacred chariot associated with Surya the sun god, to whom the temple is dedicated. This colossal structure, begun c.1240, was never completed, and by the end of the 13th century the Muslim conquest put an end to Hindu art in northern India. In the south, however, Hindu art continued to flourish. Although the finest southern monuments were from the earlier periods, such as the great temple at Tanjore built (AD c.1000) under the Chola dynasty (970-1229), major temple complexes, notably that at Madura in the extreme south, date from the 17th century. The huge gateways, or gopurams, that are covered with innumerable carvings representing the gods and goddesses and the multitude of sacred beings of the Hindu pantheon are a distinctive feature of 17th-century Madura-style architecture. The other great artistic achievement of southern India is represented in the often voluptuously shaped bronze images of Hindu deities, which are among the finest Indian sculptures ever produced. Cast in the cire perdue, or \Tlost-wax process\t, they are masterpieces of the metalworkers craft and exemplify Hindu art at its best. Those made under the Chola dynasty between the 10th and 13th centuries are considered outstanding, with powerful representation of \TShiva\t as Nataraja, the Lord of Dance, symbolizing the entire drama of the cosmos. Islamic Art of India A very different artistic tradition, largely based on Persian and Turkish prototypes, came into existence during the 12th century, when much of northern India was conquered by Muslim invaders. Because Islam forbade the making of images, sculpture--which had been the dominant art form--declined, and architecture became the most important form of artistic expression. The first of the great edifices devoted to this faith was the Quwwat ul-Islam, or Might of Islam \Tmosque\t, erected (AD 1199) on the site of a Hindu temple in Delhi. Its most impressive remaining structure is the \TQutb Minar\t, a tall \Tminaret\t from which the hour of prayer was proclaimed. Other outstanding early Islamic buildings are the tombs of the great Muslim rulers, such as that of Ghiyas ud-din Tughlag Shah in Delhi. The culmination of Indo-Islamic art, however, occurred under the Mogul dynasty (see \TMoguls\t), which came to power during the 16th century and ruled much of India until the British took control. It was under Mogul patronage that such architectural masterpieces as the \TTaj Mahal\t (begun 1628) in Agra and the great Friday mosque in Delhi were erected. The most extensive architectural remain of this age is \TFatehpur Sikri\t, a city erected (1573-80) by the emperor \TAkbar\t and abandoned after only 15 years. Other forms of artistic expression that flourished under the Moguls were miniature painting and decorative arts, notably the making of carpets, textiles, and metalwork as well as wood, ivory, and jade carving. (See \TMogul art and architecture\t.) Indian Miniature Painting The last great outburst of traditional Indian art took the shape of miniature painting, an art form that had existed in India for many centuries. The earliest of these pictorial compositions date from the 11th century and appeared in the form of palm leaf manuscripts illuminated with scenes from Buddhist texts. Another school of miniature painting, dating from a somewhat later period, was Jain in inspiration and flourished in the Gujarat region of western India. A third miniature tradition existed at the Mogul courts; its style was far more realistic and depicted secular themes. This court tradition was largely derived from Persian sources and was introduced by the Turkish and Mogul conquerors. Out of these various traditions evolved a new school of painting known as Rajput, because its most important centers were in Rajputana (central India). Rajput painting flourished from about 1500 to 1800. The subjects were largely Hindu; frequently illustrated were scenes from the life of the divine cowherd \TKrishna\t and his love for Radha. Other favorite subjects were legendary epics and the ragamalas, or musical modes. Although small in size, these pictures, executed in opaque pigments on paper, are powerful evocations of the mood of the theme represented; they often display striking combinations of warm, vibrant colors, which frequently carry symbolic value. Another great style of miniature painting, called the Pahari school, was centered in the foothills of the Himalayas. Here, in the courts of the local Hindu rulers, a style flourished that combined elements of Rajput painting with others taken from the Mogul tradition. This school, at its best during the 18th century, continued to flourish until the middle of the 19th century. Indian Art of the Modern Period By the end of the 18th century both the Hindu and Mogul artistic traditions had spent themselves. By about 1850 even the Pahari school had lost its vitality. At the same time European art and artistic ideas had been introduced into India by the British, and Western-style art schools were founded in the major cities in order to, as the British officials thought, elevate the taste of the nation. Indian painters painted in watercolors and oils, using modeling in light and shade and scientific perspective in imitation of contemporary English painting. Only on a folk level did traditional Indian art continue in the rural villages. The first person to foster an integration of Indian traditions with Western styles of painting was an Englishman, E. B. Havell (1861-1934). As head of the Calcutta School of Art, he decided to base the instruction on traditional Indian models, notably the wall paintings at Ajanta and the Mogul miniatures. Although his attempts at reviving the older schools did not succeed, his ideas and writings were of great influence and helped spur the rebirth of Indian art during the 20th century. Basing their art on modern Western art and Indian folk art, such painters as Amrita Sher-Gil, Jamini Roy, and M. F. Husain have produced works of beauty and power that combine truly Indian qualities with the ideals of modern art. Since independence, newer and more avant-garde artistic tendencies have flourished in India and neighboring countries of the Indian subcontinent. In much of this more recent work a more abstract artistic idiom is used, which nonetheless preserves much of the traditional Indian aesthetic sensibility. Hugo Munsterberg Bibliography: Chaitanya, Krishna, Arts of India (1987); Coomeraswamy, A.K., History of Indian and Indonesian Art (1927; repr. 1985); Craven, Roy C., A Concise History of Indian Art (1975); Davies, Philip, Splendours of the Raj (1988); Goetz, Hermann, The Art of India, 12th ed. (1964); Gray, Basil, ed., The Arts of India (1981); Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (1987); Kramrisch, Stella, The Art of India, 3d ed. (1965; repr. 1987); Mukherjee, R., The Culture and Art of India (1984); Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India, 3d ed. (1967); Welch, Stuart C., Imperial Mughal Painting (1978), Room for Wonder: Indian Painting During the British Period, 1760-1880 (1978), and India: Art and Culture, 1300-1900 (1985); Zimmer, Heinrich, The Art of Indian Asia, 2d ed. (1955).