France is an independent nation in Western Europe and the center of a large overseas administration. It is the largest European nation (excluding the \TUSSR\t). France is shaped like a hexagon, and three of its six sides are bounded by water--the English Channel on the northwest, the Atlantic Ocean and Bay of Biscay on the west, and the Mediterranean Sea on the southeast. The remaining sides are mostly mountainous and are shared by seven European neighbors--Belgium and Luxembourg on the northeast; Germany, Switzerland, and Italy on the east; and Spain and tiny Andorra on the south. France's eighth neighbor is Monaco, located on the Mediterranean coast near Nice and entirely surrounded by French territory. The diameter of the hexagon measures close to 1,000 km (620 mi) from each of its six corners to the opposite corner. In ancient times France was part of the Celtic territory known as Gaul or Gallia. Its present name is derived from the Latin Francia, meaning "country of the Franks," a Germanic people who conquered the area during the 5th century, at the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It became a separate country in the 9th century. Since the 17th century, France has played a major role in European and world events. In the 20th century, it has experienced numerous crises, including the devastation of two world wars, political and social upheavals, and the loss of a large empire in Indochina, Algeria, and West and Equatorial Africa. It has, however, survived and emerged from the ruins of World War II to become an important world supplier of agricultural and industrial products and a major partner in the \TEuropean Community\t (EC, or Common Market). Today, the term metropolitan France refers to the mainland departments and \TCorsica\t, a large island located in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Italy that has been a part of France since 1768. France has six overseas departments: \TFrench Guiana\t in South America; \TGuadeloupe\t and \TMartinique\t in the West Indies; \TMayotte\t, an island formerly part of the Comoros, located in the Indian Ocean; \TReunion\t, an island in the Indian Ocean; and \TSaint Pierre and Miquelon\t, islands off the east coast of Canada. In addition, France has numerous small possessions called overseas territories. These include a group of widely scattered islands in the South Pacific, which are administered from Tahiti and are known collectively as \TFrench Polynesia\t; \TFrench Southern and Antarctic Territories\t; \TNew Caledonia\t and \TWallis and Futuna Islands\t; and many small islands in the southern oceans, including the Kerguelen and Crozet archipelagos and the islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam (Indian Ocean). The overseas departments and territories are represented in the French National Assembly. LAND AND RESOURCES France may be divided into two regions by an imaginary line joining \TBiarritz\t in the southwest and Luxembourg in the northeast. Broad plains, low hills, and low plateaus predominate north and west of this line, and elevated plateaus and high mountains, including Mont \TBlanc\t, the highest point in Europe (outside of the \TUSSR\t), are found south and east of the line. Linking the two types of terrain, as well as providing easy communication with other parts of Europe, are several wide valleys and gaps, including the \TBelfort Gap\t, the Saone valley, the upper Rhone valley, the combined Rhone-Saone corridor south of \TLyon\t, and the gaps at \TCarcassonne\t and \TToulouse\t. France is sometimes described as a microcosm of Europe because the three major types of European landforms--sedimentary basins and lowlands, worn-down Hercynian mountain blocks, and younger, folded mountain belts--are all well represented in France. The principal sedimentary basin is the Paris Basin, which forms a vast, saucer-shaped lowland, covering about 100,000 sq km (39,000 sq mi) and composed of alternating layers of hard and soft rocks that afford a varied relief. The smaller Aquitaine Basin, also sedimentary, lies southwest of the Paris Basin. Other lowlands include several long, narrow plains that run north-south, including the Alsace Plain west of the Rhine and the Rhone-Saone corridor, and coastal plains, including the Languedoc Plain, along the Mediterranean coast. The basins and plains have fertile soils, notably loam and alluvial deposits, and are excellent for farming. The Hercynian mountain blocks are remnants of ancient mountains formed during the Hercynian orogeny (a mountain-building period during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, 340 to 230 million years ago) and subsequently worn down before being uplifted during the Tertiary Period (65 to 2 million years ago). The principal uplands are the Armorican Massif, the \TMassif Central\t, the \TVosges\t, and the \TArdennes\t. The Armorican Massif, located in northwestern France, is composed mainly of low plateaus. The Massif Central is located in south-central France between the Rhone-Saone corridor and the Aquitaine Basin, and consists of plateaus that rise to more than 1,000 m (3,300 ft); the Auvergne Mountains, of volcanic origin, rise from the plateaus of the Massif Central. The Vosges are located in eastern France between the Paris Basin and the Alsace Plain, and reach more than 1,200 m (4,000 ft) in the Ballons d'Alsace. A small portion of the Ardennes, which lie mostly in Belgium and Luxembourg, extends into France. The soils in all the Hercynian uplands are usually thin and developed on underlying granite and crystalline rocks. The two principal mountain chains in France are the \TPyrenees\t, which form the border with Spain, and the \TAlps\t, which form most of the border with Switzerland and Italy. The Pyrenees are difficult to cross because of their high altitude--several summits exceed 3,000 m (10,000 ft)--and the absence of low passes. The French Alps, the western end of the European Alpine chain, are also high and rugged, with elevations of 3,500 m (11,500 ft). Unlike the Pyrenees, however, the Alps are broken by several important river valleys, including the Rhone, Isere, and Durance, providing access to Switzerland and Italy. The \TJura\t, a mountain range on the Swiss border, are lower and less rugged components of the Alpine chain. France's coastline is 3,427 km (2,129 mi) long, including 644 km (400 mi) on Corsica. The character of the coastline ranges from sandy and straight, as in \TLanguedoc\t on the Mediterranean, to deeply indented capes and bays, as in \TBrittany\t, the \TCote d'Azur\t, and Corsica. Climate Four climatic types prevail in France. A true temperate maritime climate is found in the west, near the coasts, and is exemplified at \TBrest\t, where winters are mild (7 deg C/45 deg F in January), summers are cool (16 deg C/61 deg F in July), and rainfall is frequent (800 mm/32 in) during 180 days of the year. A mid-latitude continental climate prevails in the interior of the country, with hotter summers (average July temperature of 18 deg C/64 deg F in \TParis\t) and more rigorous winters (average January temperature of 2 deg C/36 deg F in Paris), and rain falls on fewer days of the year. A mountain climate prevails at high elevations, where temperatures are influenced mainly by altitude, and winters are generally bitterly cold and prolonged. Precipitation increases with elevation and occurs in the form of snow in winter, many villages in the high valleys receiving more than 50 days of snow each year. Briancon, in the Alps, has a mean temperature of -2 deg C (28 deg F) in January, and 17 deg C (63 deg F) in July; annual precipitation averages 587 mm (23 in). A Mediterranean type of climate is found in a zone about 20 to 60 km (12 to 35 mi) wide along the Mediterranean coast. It is characterized by hot, dry summers, mild and humid winters, and a small number of rainy days during the year. In \TMarseille\t, 550 mm (22 in) of rain falls during 60 days of the year, and the sun shines for more than 3,000 hours each year. The average temperature is 7 deg C (45 deg F) in January and 23 deg C (73 deg F) in July. Drainage The \TSeine\t, the best-known river in France, passes through Paris and drains the Paris Basin. It is 776 km (482 mi) long. The major tributaries are the \TMarne\t, Oise, and Yonne rivers. The \TLoire\t, with a length slightly more than 1,000 km (620 mi), is France's largest river. Its major tributaries are the Sarthe, Loir, Vienne, Cher, and Allier. The \TRhone\t--the deepest river, with the largest volume of flow--has a length of only 523 km (325 mi) in France (the upper reaches are in Switzerland) and receives, among its major tributaries, the \TSaone\t and \TIsere\t rivers. The Garonne and Dordogne rivers, also important, join below \TBordeaux\t to form the Gironde. Vegetation and Animal Life France was entirely wooded before the Neolithic Period, when deciduous forests, principally beeches and oaks, covered the country except for temperate mountain forests composed of firs and piceas, and Mediterranean forests of pines and oaks in the southeast. Because of centuries of intensive agricultural and pastoral activity, the forests have been largely destroyed. Extensive forests now exist only in the mountains, on soils that are unsuitable for agriculture, and in protected forest preserves. The original fauna, comprised mostly of deer, roebucks, and wild boars, has been virtually eliminated. Since the end of the 19th century, however, programs to protect the natural environment have been implemented, particularly in the national and regional parks. Conifers have been planted in reforestation programs in all parts of the country, and forests now cover 25% of France's land area. Resources Although diverse, the natural resources of France are relatively limited in quantity. France has some coal, iron ores, bauxite, and uranium; but the coal veins are deep and difficult to work and are unsuitable for use in the manufacture of steel. Iron ores are of a low grade, and the uranium ore is found only in small quantities. Deposits of petroleum are almost nonexistent, and natural gas reserves discovered (1951) at Lacq in the Pyrenees are now nearly exhausted. Hydroelectric production, although well developed, does not meet France's needs. On the other hand, high-quality soils cover almost half the country's surface, giving France an agricultural surplus that makes it an exporter of food. PEOPLE The modern French population is largely native-born and represents a fusion of many peoples of Celtic, Germanic, Latin, and Slavic origins. Contrary to what has happened in many other countries, the immigrants have blended so well into existing French society that today it is difficult to determine the ethnic origins of most French citizens. More ethnically prominent are the 20th-century immigrants, including an estimated 4 million foreigners--mainly Portuguese, Spanish, and Italians--and many French citizens, a large number of them Arabs, who entered France in the 1960s from former French colonies in Algeria and sub-Saharan Africa. In 1990 an estimated 2.5 million North Africans lived in France. The French language is understood and spoken by virtually the entire population, although other languages and dialects persist alongside French in peripheral areas; they include \TBasque\t, Alsatian, Corsican, Breton, Provencal, Catalan, and Flemish. About 80% of the population nominally belongs to the Roman Catholic church, although only a minority of these participate regularly in church activities. Protestants constitute less than 2% of the population; Jews, about 1%; Muslims, who have entered France recently from former North African colonies, about 4%. Demography In 1801, France, with a population of 28 million, was the most populous country in Europe; by 1850, the population had grown to 36 million. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, the French birthrate dropped to levels lower than those in the rest of Europe, and France experienced a much slower rate of population growth than the rest of the continent. At the end of World War II the population was only 40 million. After 1946, however, the birthrate rose to 21 per 1,000, a higher rate than had existed for more than a century. Although the rate fell to 18 per 1,000 in 1963 and to 13.6 per 1,000 in 1989, the last few decades have witnessed an unprecedented expansion that added millions of people to France's schools and, later, to the labor force and consumer markets. This unusual demographic evolution explains why population densities in France today are only one-half to one-third that of other Western European nations. Within France, the population distribution is uneven and closely reflects levels of economic development. Regions without industry or with poor soils are only sparsely populated. On the other hand, the regions with the largest populations are the great centers of economic activity: the industrial north; Lyon, where industry is important; along the Cote d'Azur, which depends on tourism; and especially Paris, where diverse economic activities are concentrated. Since 1950, France has experienced extremely rapid urbanization. Almost all cities have increased in size, at the expense of the rural population. In the early 1990s, more than three-quarters of the country's population lived in cities, and the figure is even higher when commuters are included. France has, therefore, now largely caught up with the rest of Europe in its urbanization. The country is unusual in its urban structure. Metropolitan Paris is the home of one-sixth of France's population and is the largest urban agglomeration in Europe outside the \TUSSR\t. Other French cities are small by comparison, the largest being the metropolitan areas of Lyon (1.2 million) and Marseille (1.1 million); next in size is \TLille\t, which has a metropolitan area of 1,020,000; after that comes Bordeaux, which has 640,000, Toulouse (541,000), \TNantes\t (465,000), \TNice\t (450,000), and \TStrasbourg\t (400,000). Education and Health Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 16, who may attend either free public schools or fee-charging private schools run mostly by the Roman Catholic church. About one-sixth of schoolchildren attend the private schools. Preschool education for children between the ages of 2 and 6 is optional but is now widely accepted; more than 2.3 million children are enrolled in preschool programs. Children between the ages of 6 and 11 attend primary schools, and all proceed at age 12 to secondary schools, called lycees and colleges. Work in the secondary schools is divided into a compulsory first cycle for ages 12 to 16, after which a student may leave school or take an optional second cycle of courses; students who wish to pursue higher education take the long course of the second cycle and are prepared for the difficult baccalaureat exam, which is the minimum university entrance requirement. Students who will pursue a technical career take a short course that offers practical training. Beginning in 1980 the Mitterrand government introduced greater local control and a more flexible curriculum into the formerly highly centralized school system. A plan to extend state control over private schools was abandoned because of widespread public opposition. Higher education is free to qualified students. Nearly one million students, or five times as many as a generation ago, now continue their studies after secondary school in 72 universities, and in technological institutes and "grandes ecoles" (prestigious schools that prepare students for high-ranking careers in business and government). France's state-subsidized medical system is considered liberal because doctors and dentists establish private practices, and patients, who are free to choose their own doctors and dentists, are reimbursed by the state for up to 85% of medical costs. Hospital facilities, although greatly expanded since World War II, are still considered inadequate. Doctors tend to be concentrated in the cities and are in short supply in some rural areas. The death rate, life expectancy, and infant mortality rate are similar to those of other industrialized nations. As is true of most developed countries, the principal causes of death are cancer and cardiovascular diseases. The Arts French literature includes a roster of world-famous novelists, poets, playwrights, and philosophers. Many of the new art movements of the 19th and 20th centuries, including \Timpressionism\t and \Tcubism\t, began in France. A ministry of culture was established in 1959 to preserve this rich cultural heritage and to make it more widely available outside of Paris. Cultural institutions have now been established throughout the country, and numerous expositions and festivals are held during the summer. (See \TFrench art and architecture\t; \TFrench literature\t; and \TFrench music\t.) ECONOMIC ACTIVITY By the 18th century France was one of the world's richest nations. Industrialization began promisingly at the end of the 18th century, as it did in England. Unlike England and the rest of Europe, however, France failed to maintain the momentum of its early industrial start and was still primarily an agricultural nation at the end of the 19th century. Industry expanded behind protective trade barriers in the early 20th century, but most growth has occurred since the end of World War II. France now ranks among the world's most economically advanced nations. A distinctive feature of the postwar French economy has been national economic development plans. The first, the Monnet Plan (named after Jean \TMonnet\t, who conceived it), ran from 1947 to 1953. Railways were nationalized in 1937, and many other sectors of the economy, including the coal, natural gas, electricity, banking, and transportation (Renault and Air France) came under state control shortly after World War II. Other major industries were nationalized in the early 1980s. The increasing state control of production has been matched by a partial removal of protective trade tariffs and membership in the European Community. Manufacturing In the early 1990s manufacturing employed between 20% and 25% of the labor force. The principal industrial concentrations are around Paris, in the Nord-Pas de Calais and Lorraine coalfields, in the Lyon and \TSaint-Etienne\t complex of the Rhone valley, and in the new industrial centers that have emerged in the English Channel ports of \TDunkerque\t and \TLe Havre\t and the Mediterranean industrial complex at Fos (west of Marseille) because of the use of imported raw materials. Many French business enterprises are small to moderate in size, although the competitive business climate created by membership in the EC has forced many companies to be restructured and combined to form powerful corporations. The leading manufacturing industries are metallurgy, mechanical and electrical engineering, chemicals, and textiles. In 1986, France ranked third in Europe (excluding the \TUSSR\t) in steel production (after Germany and Italy), with an output of 14.8 million metric tons (16.3 million U.S tons); and second (after Germany) in aluminum output. These and imported metals are fabricated into a wide range of mechanical and electrical equipment marketed throughout the world. French locomotives, turbines, electronics equipment, nuclear power plants and submarines, and television systems are famous for their innovative design, as are French automobiles, such as Citroen, Peugeot, Simca, and Renault, and French aircraft, such as Mirage, Concorde, and Airbus. In 1985, France ranked fourth in the world (after Japan, the United States, and Germany) in production of passenger cars and third (after Japan and the United States) in output of commercial vehicles. A wide range of chemicals, including perfumes, pharmaceuticals, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and fertilizers, are also produced. The French textile and garment industry has long been known for its high fashion, although in recent years the industry has lost many former markets to lower-priced imports from countries with lower labor costs. Mining Less than 1% of the labor force is engaged in mining. In 1988 coal production was 14.5 million metric tons (16.9 million U.S. tons), most of it from two principal coalfields--the Lorraine coalfield near \TMetz\t, which is an extension into France of the Saar coalfield; and the Nord-Pas de Calais coalfield around Lille, which is an extension into France of Belgium's Sambre-Meuse coalfields and is similarly thin-seamed, faulted, and difficult to work. Since the 1950s many inefficient mines in the north and in the Massif Central have been closed, and coal output has declined by about 75%. The Lorraine basin will probably be the only producing area left by the end of the century. Lorraine has the largest iron ore deposits in Europe outside the \TUSSR\t, but they have a low iron content and are in less demand than higher-grade imported ores. Large bauxite deposits (from which aluminum is produced) are mined in the south; France is one of Europe's leading producers of bauxite. Potash deposits, used in the chemical industry, are extensive in the vicinity of \TMulhouse\t. Natural gas deposits have been worked since 1951 near \TPau\t, close to the Spanish border. The natural gas has a high sulfur content, and France is a major European supplier of this mineral, which is extracted at Lacq. Small amounts of petroleum are produced at the Parentis oilfield in the southwest, and the search for petroleum deposits continues off the coast of Brittany and in the Bay of \TBiscay\t. Power France's fuel resources are inadequate. The country has to import three-quarters of the fuel, mainly petroleum, needed to meet its requirements. However, production of electrical energy is significant. In 1988 output reached 372 billion kW h, with nuclear energy representing 70% of the total. France is the world's second-largest supplier of nuclear power (after the United States). Hydroelectric plants operate on the Isere, Durance, Rhine, Rhone, and Dordogne rivers. A tidal power plant is located on the Rance River in Brittany. Agriculture and Fishing France is the leading agricultural nation in Europe (excluding the \TUSSR\t), and about 7% of the labor force is engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Three-fifths of the land area is used for farming; about 31% is cultivated, 3% is in vineyards and orchards, and 24% is used as meadow and pasture. Since the end of World War II, agricultural policy has been directed toward modernization of agriculture, including mechanization of farms, raising productivity per hectare, and consolidating numerous small holdings into larger, more efficient, farms. In 1988, 47.6% of France's farm income came from livestock raising. Cattle are raised mainly in the north and west; sheep and goats are raised primarily in the drier, more mountainous south and east, and pigs and chickens are raised throughout the country. France is Europe's (excluding the \TUSSR\t) leading producer of beef, veal, poultry, and cheese and a leading producer of milk and eggs. Crops contribute about 52% of farm income, with cereals and sugar beets the most important products. Wheat is widely grown in the Paris Basin, and France ranks fifth in world wheat production. Other grains grown are barley, corn, and oats, which, with sugar beet factory residues, are used primarily for livestock feed; some rice is grown under irrigation in the Rhone delta. Wine is a major crop throughout the country, both the vin ordinaire, or everyday wine, of the region and the appellation controlee, or quality-controlled, wines of such regions as \TBurgundy\t, \TChampagne\t, Bordeaux, and Alsace (see \TAlsace-Lorraine\t). In recent years the government has tried to discourage overproduction of wine. Flowers are grown for perfume at Grasse, and a wide variety of fruits and vegetables are raised in the warm Mediterranean region for shipment to northern and central Europe. Fishing, unlike agriculture, occupies only a modest place in the economy, but France ranks 20th among the nations of the world in total fish production. Fishing is locally important in the coastal areas of Normandy and Brittany, the Southern Atlantic coast, and the Mediterranean. Concarneau, \TBoulogne-sur-Mer\t, Lorient, and \TLa Rochelle\t are leading fishing ports. Transportation Major efforts have been made since World War II to improve and modernize the extensive French transportation system and to lessen its historical focus on the Paris metropolitan area. Train service, provided by the state, is fast and efficient, especially on the more than 12,000 km (7,456 mi) of electrified track. The French National Railways' Trains a Grande Vitesse (TGV, "high speed trains") are world famous. In 1988 a consortium of French and British construction companies began work on the English Channel Tunnel or "Chunnel," scheduled for completion in 1993, which will establish the first direct rail link between France and Britain. Airlines are also state run; Air France is one of the world's largest airline companies. France's road system provides access to all parts of the nation. The network of expressways (7,000 km or 4,350 mi) is in the process of being expanded. In 1990 there were 23 million passenger cars and more than 5 million trucks and buses. Waterways carry much of the nation's bulk freight; the three principal waterways deep enough to accommodate the 1,500-ton barges common in Europe are the Rhine River, the Seine between Le Havre and Paris, and the canalized section of the Moselle below Metz. Trade and Tourism France is the fourth largest exporter and the fifth-largest importer on the foreign trade market. The two principal ports are Marseille and its annexes on the Mediterranean, and Le Havre at the mouth of the Seine on the English Channel. In 1989 major imports broke down as follows: machinery (26.6%); chemicals and chemical products (15.7%); agricultural products (11.6%); automobiles (5.8%); petroleum and petroleum products (4.5%); other fuels (4.3%). Major exports were machinery (27.7%); agricultural products (17.5%); chemicals (15.1%); and transportation equipment (12.7%). Most trade is conducted with other members of the EC. In 1989 more than 42 million tourists visited France, which ranked third among the nations of the world in number of tourists (after Spain and the United States). GOVERNMENT France's political institutions have undergone several changes since the 1789 revolution. The present constitution, adopted in 1958 and revised in 1962, established the Fifth Republic and provided for a powerful president, originally Charles \Tde Gaulle\t, and a bicameral legislature with less power than it had in the past. The president is elected by direct popular vote for a 7-year term. He appoints the prime minister and may dissolve the National Assembly. The legislature consists of a 318-member Senate elected indirectly by an electoral college, and a politically more important 577-member, directly elected National Assembly. The five overseas departments of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Reunion, and St. Pierre and Miquelon are represented in the National Assembly as are New Caledonia, Mayotte, Wallis and Futuna Islands and French Polynesia. Senate members serve 9-year terms, with one-third of the seats falling due for election every 3 years. The National Assembly is elected every 5 years. The minimum voting age is 18 years. The four leading French political parties are the Socialist party; the conservative Rassemblement pour la republique (RPR), founded by Charles de Gaulle and now led by Jacques \TChirac\t; the Union pour la democratie francaise (UDF); and the French Communist party. Francois \TMitterrand\t, leader of the Socialist party, was elected president in May 1981, giving the Fifth Republic its first socialist government. When a UDF-RPR coalition won a majority of seats in the parliamentary election of 1986, Mitterrand had to call on opposition leader Chirac to form a government, marking another first for the Fifth Republic--a "cohabitation" arrangement in which the president and the prime minister were of different parties. The Chirac government modified many of the socialist reforms introduced earlier by Mitterrand. When Mitterrand was reelected to a second term in 1988, he was able to replace Chirac with Michel \TRocard\t, a Socialist. In 1991, Rocard was succeeded by another Socialist, Edith \TCresson\t, France's first woman prime minister. Local administration of France is organized around 22 administrative regions and 96 metropolitan departments, and the Mitterrand government implemented (1982) a devolution plan, giving more authority to regions and departments. Each department covers about 5,000 sq km (1,930 sq mi) and is administered by an elected departmental council. Within the departments are about 36,000 communes, corresponding to the parishes of prerevolutionary France, which are small and are headed by elected mayors. Daniel Noin Reviewed by Anne Depigny and Agnes Jolivet Bibliography: \TGeneral\t \TWorks\t: Andrews, W. G., and Hoffman, S., The Fifth Republic at Twenty (1981); Ardagh, John, France in the 1980s (1983); Bernstein, Richard, Fragile Glory: A Portrait of France and the French (1990); Braudel, Fernand, The Identity of France, vol. 1, trans. by S. Reynolds (1989); Mazey, Sonia, and Newman, Michel, eds., Mitterrand's France (1987); Zeldin, Theodore, The French (1983). \Tgeography\t: Clout, Hugh D., The Geography of Post-War France (1972); Pinchemel, Philippe, France: A Geographical, Social, and Economic Survey, trans. by Dorothy and T. H. Elkins (1987); Economic Geography (1971); Tuppin, J., The Economic Geography of France (1983). \Teconomics\t: Hough, Jean, The French Economy (1982); Keating, Michael, and Hainsworth, Paul, Decentralization and Change in Contemporary France (1986); Price, Roger, An Economic History of Modern France (1981). \LPolitic\ls AND \Tgovernment\t: Ambler, Eric, ed., The French Socialist Experiment (1985); Ehrmann, Henry W., Politics in France, 4th ed. (1983); McCarthy, Patrick, ed., The French Socialists in Power (1987); Pickles, Dorothy M., Problems of Contemporary French Politics (1982); Wright, Vincent, The Government and Politics of France, 3d ed. (1989). See also: \TFrance, history of\t.