Brazil, the largest country in South America, stretches almost 4,350 km (2,700 mi), from the foothills of the Andes Mountains eastward to the Atlantic Ocean, and borders on every country of the continent except Chile and Ecuador. Its official name is the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: Republica Federativa do Brasil). Brazil occupies almost half of South America and is the world's fifth-largest country in area. Although its area is just slightly less than the United States, Brazil's population is only about 60% that of the United States. The capital, \TBrasilia\t, was built in the highlands beginning in 1957 in order to encourage development of the interior. Brazil's name is derived from the Portuguese word for the reddish color of brazilwood, an important export during the 16th century. Today the country is normally the world's largest exporter of coffee and sugar. It is also a leading exporter of soybeans. Despite the availability of rich agricultural and mineral resources and recently modernized industry, Brazil has an economy that is hampered by a huge foreign debt. Brazil gained independence from Portugal in 1822, and during the 19th century enjoyed a political stability unusual for Latin America. In the 20th century, however, social turmoil and political strife have led to the overthrow of many administrations. The military controlled the government from 1964 until 1985, when a civilian president took office. LAND AND RESOURCES Brazil is mostly highland. Its major physiographic regions include the Guiana Highlands, which are north of the \TAmazon River\t; the Amazon Basin itself; the Brazilian Highlands, which are south of the Amazon; and the \TChaco\t. Brazil's highest mountain, the Pico da Neblina (3,014 m/9,888 ft), is located in the Brazilian Highlands, just northwest of \TRio de Janeiro\t. Similar geologic processes formed all of Brazil's highland regions. The deepest and oldest rocks are crystalline granites and quartzites. Over several million years these large blocks of land were thrust upward, dissected by erosion, and then inundated by the sea; during this period, sedimentary layers of varying thicknesses were deposited. Finally, another episode of uplift and erosion took place. Resistant diabase is responsible for the buttes and mesas common to Brazil's highlands. Uplift occurring along the eastern margin produced the coastal mountain ranges. The eastern margin of the Brazilian Highlands, known as the Great Escarpment, slopes abruptly toward the sea. A wealth of data associated with the theory of \Tplate tectonics\t indicates that Brazil was once joined to western Africa. The lowland areas of Brazil are composed mostly of undisturbed sedimentary rocks of alluvial origin. Brazil's coastal plain is narrow and discontinuous, occasionally interrupted by steep cliffs. During the colonial period this arrangement of landforms acted as a deterrent to interior settlement. Even today the population remains concentrated along the coast or on the major rivers. Climate The single most important influence on Brazil's climate is its location on the equator. Temperatures seldom exceed 35 deg C (95 deg F) in the tropics, owing to the moderating effects of high atmospheric humidity. At Rio de Janeiro, average temperatures vary from 22 deg C (71 deg F) in the coldest month, July, to 27 deg C (80 deg F) in the warmest month, January. The northern limit of frost passes through the state of Parana. Most of Brazil receives a moderate rainfall of 1,000-1,500 mm (40-60 in), but the Amazon lowlands and several other areas receive more than 2,030 mm (80 in) of rainfall annually. The semiarid northeastern interior, or Sertao, frequently suffers from alternating drought and floods. Vegetation and Animal Life Rainfall is the primary determinant of vegetation in Brazil. Tropical rain forest, or Selva, is found in the wettest part of the Amazon Basin. The opening of this area to settlement through road building in the 1970s has led to the large-scale burning of this forest--an estimated 200,000 sq km (77,220 sq mi) was burned in 1987 alone--arousing worldwide concern and prompting a government conservation program. Much of Brazil is covered by savanna, or tropical grassland. In the interior of the northeast, caatinga, a low and bushy scrub and thorn forest, is characteristic. The Parana pine, or "monkey puzzle tree," is a peculiar conifer found mostly in the southern part of the country. Wildlife is abundant in Brazil, although large mammals are rare. Tapirs, capybaras, parrots, and monkeys are plentiful. The small, flesh-eating piranha fish lives in the Amazon River. Soils Lateritic soils dominate the Brazilian countryside. Thick, coarse, and reddish, they are deficient in plant nutrients. Rich alluvial soils mark the river floodplains. The fertile, dark-colored terra roxa soils found in southern Brazil are excellent for growing coffee. Drainage Brazil is drained by three major river systems: the Parana-Paraguay-Plata in the south, the \TSao Francisco\t in the east, and the \TAmazon\t in the north. The highlands of southern Brazil are drained by the \TParana\t, \TParaguay\t and \TUruguay\t rivers, water from which flows eventually into the Plata. None of these rivers is navigable for any distance. The Sao Francisco flows northward from the Brazilian Highlands for 1,600 km (1,000 mi). Waterfalls and swift currents prohibit navigation except for the last 290 km (180 mi). The Amazon, the major river of South America, is the world's second longest river (6,440 km/4,000 mi), and most of its basin lies within Brazil. No other river approaches its discharge, or volume of flow: more than 198,100 cu mi (7,000,000 cu ft) of water pass through its mouth into the Atlantic Ocean each second, more than ten times the volume of the Mississippi River. The river's channel reaches depths of 91 m (300 ft) in places, permitting oceangoing ships to navigate almost 1,600 km (1,000 mi) upstream. The Amazon's major tributaries are the \TTocantins\t-\TAraguaia\t, the \TMadeira\t, the \TNegro\t, the Xingu, and the Tapajos. Resources Brazil's mineral resources are superlative, but many are still unexploited. Sizable deposits of iron and manganese ores have been discovered, but Brazil lacks the high-grade coking coal needed to transform them into steel. Brazil is a leading exporter of iron ore. New discoveries of oil and increased domestic output permitted the country to reduce oil imports from over 80% of the nation's requirements at the end of the 1970s to under 60% by the mid-1980s. Production of tin and gold expanded markedly during the 1980s. Discoveries of these and other minerals--including phosphates, uranium, manganese, titanium, copper, coal, and gemstones--are regularly being made, particularly in the state of Minas Gerais and the Amazon area. Known reserves of bauxite and platinum, confirmed in recent years, are extensive. PEOPLE Demography Most Brazilians live in densely populated areas of eastern Brazil. Although urbanization has not produced actual declines in rural population, internal migration has caused cities to grow much faster than rural areas. The largest cities are \TSao Paulo\t, Rio de Janeiro, \TBelo Horizonte\t, \TSalvador\t, \TBelo Horizonte\t \TRecife\t, and \TPorto Alegre\t. Many migrants to the cities take up residence in favela, or shantytowns, on the edge of urban areas. The urban poverty and unemployment that accompany swift urbanization are aggravated by a fast population-growth rate. At the growth rate prevailing at the end of the 1980s, the population of Brazil was expected to double in 34 years. The Ethnic Mix Because of the tremendous influx of immigrants into Brazil during the 19th century, the population is mostly Caucasian (60%) and mixed (30%). The Portuguese were followed by Italians, Germans, Syrians, and Lebanese. Asians arrived during the 1930s. About 1 million Indians, mostly of Tupi-Guarani, Carib, Arawak, and Ge linguistic stock, lived in Brazil when the first Portuguese explorers arrived early in the 16th century. Intermarriage between Portuguese and Indians produced a new race called mamelucos by the Brazilians. Beginning in 1538, African slaves were brought to Brazil. Almost 5 million slaves were admitted before the abolition of slavery in 1888. Mulattoes, those of mixed black and white ancestry, constitute perhaps 20% of the population. Today, the population of Brazil's three southernmost states is mostly white. Blacks and mulattoes are concentrated along the Atlantic Coast. Indians, constituting less than 1% of the total population, live mostly in the interior. Language and Religion Although Brazil has a racially mixed population, most of its citizens are united by language and religion. Portuguese is the official language, and only some 35,000 Indians (members of the most isolated tribes) and recent immigrants (particularly Japanese) do not speak it. More than 90% of Brazilians are Roman Catholic, making Brazil the world's largest Roman Catholic country. Church and state have been constitutionally separated since 1889. Education and Health The adult literacy rate in Brazil has risen only gradually. Despite the adult education program, MOBRAL, which the government launched in 1971 to reduce the level of illiteracy, the illiteracy rate remained above 20% through the 1980s. Official schools offer preprimary education. Education is compulsory, and free, between the ages of 7 and 14 years. Secondary education is also free. The University of Rio de Janeiro (1920) is one of the prominent universities. Between 1975 and 1980 Brazil's annual mortality rate was 9.1 deaths for every 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate is 77 for every 1,000 births. The Arts The vitality of the arts in Brazil owes much to the country's racial and ethnic mix. Rio's Carnaval, a spectacular folk festival held each year just before Lent, is a showcase for the SAMBA, Brazil's most characteristic dance, which has a pronounced African beat. The late Heitor \TVilla-Lobos\t is one of the nation's most respected composers. Folk arts and crafts thrive in the rural areas, and many modern Brazilian painters take the everyday life of humble people as their subject. The influence of Mexican revolutionary muralists is apparent in the work of such famous modern artists as Candido \TPortinari\t. Brazil's brilliant architects have created outstanding modern structures of a recognizably Brazilian stamp, most notably the nation's capital, Brasilia, which was planned by Lucio \TCosta\t. Its buildings, designed by Oscar \TNiemeyer\t, blend function and simple beauty. Prominent literary figures of the last two centuries include Jorge \TAmado\t, Joaquim Maria \TMachado de Assis\t, Euclydes da Cunha, and Gilberto \TFreyre\t. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES Until recently Brazil's economy has been one of boom and bust; its development has been determined in succession by the world demand for sugarcane, rubber, and coffee. The country has now begun a drive to develop its vast resources and to industrialize. Nevertheless, Brazil is still primarily an agricultural country, with severe economic problems. The reforming "cruzado plan" (1986) at first spurred economic growth, but by 1987 inflation was again soaring. The world financial community has cooperated in rescheduling interest payments on Brazil's massive foreign debt. Agriculture and Forestry Despite its importance to the economy, Brazilian agriculture is largely inefficient and backward. The most important commercial crop has traditionally been coffee, largely produced on fazendas ("plantations") in the states of Parana and Sao Paulo and thus subject to frost damage. Although the quality of its coffee is considered poor, Brazil is the world's leading producer and exporter. Other important commercial crops of Brazil include bananas, soybeans, cacao (of which Brazil is the world's third largest exporter), tobacco, corn, sugarcane, and oranges (Brazil's production is second only to that of the United States). Cattle raising is well developed, and Brazil is now a more important livestock producer than Argentina. Although Brazil has Latin America's most extensive forests, their inaccessibility has hampered the development of the forest products industry. Even so, Brazil is Latin America's largest exporter of lumber. Mining and Manufacturing Iron ore and manganese ore are the mainstays of Brazilian mining: Brazil is estimated to have about 15% of the world's iron ore reserves. High-grade hematite has long been mined at Itabira, Minas Gerais, and a new site in the Carajas Highlands in Para, estimated to be the largest deposit in the world, is now under development. Manganese ore is mined at Lafaiete, Minas Gerais, and in the northern state of Amapa. In addition, the Trompetas bauxite mining venture, located near the mouth of the Amazon River, began production in the late 1970s. Brazil's leading industries manufacture processed foods, chemicals, textiles, metal products and machinery, transportation equipment (automobiles and ships), and petroleum products. Most manufacturing is concentrated in the Sao Paulo area. The country drastically reduced its dependence on imported petroleum in the 1980s through the use of \Tgasohol\t and hydroelectric power. The \TItaipu\t hydroelectric station near Foz do Iguacu on the Parana River, opened in 1982, has the largest generating capacity in the world. Some other hydroelectric, and nuclear power, projects were postponed in the 1980s because of the government's austerity program. Transportation and Trade Brazil has by far the longest road network in Latin America, as well as the most automobiles, trucks, and buses of any Latin American nation. Among the busiest seaports in the country are Santos, Vitoria, Rio de Janeiro, Paranagua, and Recife. Rivers are major avenues of transportation, especially in the interior; topography has hindered the development of an inland rail network. The value of Brazil's exports (including coffee, soybeans, iron ore, processed foods, machinery, vehicles, and vegetable products) is the highest in South America. Despite a fundamentally strong economy, however, Brazil is one of the world's largest debtor nations; its economic problems were aggravated in the 1980s by floods, drought, and high inflation. Because agricultural commodities--coffee, cocoa, orange juice, tobacco, sugar--are highly valuable Brazilian exports, climatic conditions such as drought, as well as fluctuating world prices, can significantly alter the annual trade picture. GOVERNMENT The constitution of 1969, suspended by a succession of military governments and amended in 1977 and 1978, vested executive power in the president, legislative power in a senate and a chamber of deputies, and judicial power in a supreme court. The country returned to full civilian rule in 1985, but the president was chosen by an electoral college. The new constitution, promulgated on Oct. 5, 1988, provides for a directly elected president and a bicameral legislature. Although the presidential system was retained, the constitution grants greater powers than previously to states and localities. HISTORY Archaeological discoveries in northeastern Brazil in the 1980s indicate that humans may have settled in the area at least 32,000 years ago--far earlier than had been believed. The indigenous Indian population was widely scattered and probably numbered no more than 1 million when the first permanent Portuguese settlement (Sao Vicente in Sao Paulo state), however, was not founded until 1532. French Huguenots briefly settled at Rio de Janeiro, and the Dutch ruled at Recife from 1630 to 1654. The demand for sugar in Europe led to the establishment of sugarcane plantations along the northeast coast in the 1530s, and the Portuguese crown granted 12 individuals feudal powers over large blocs of land called capitanias. The capitania system ended in 1640. Starting in the 1600s colonists from Sao Paulo called bandeirantes settled the interior. Gold and diamonds were discovered in Minas Gerais shortly after 1700. Rio de Janeiro was designated as the only port from which gold could legally be exported, and it supplanted Bahia as the capital in 1763. In 1807-08, during the Napoleonic Wars, King \TJohn VI\t of Portugal took refuge in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil, now the seat of government for its mother country, witnessed tremendous economic growth. When a threatened revolution in Portugal forced John VI to return to Lisbon, popular pressure compelled his son, Dom Pedro, to declare Brazil independent in 1822. Dom Pedro was crowned Emperor \TPedro I\t and ruled until 1831, when he abdicated. His son, Dom \TPedro II\t, succeeded him. During the reign of Dom Pedro II, Brazil enjoyed economic prosperity, largely as a result of the able administration of this outstanding ruler. After expanding the country's territory as the result of a successful war against Paraguay (1864-70), the emperor cultivated cordial relationships with the United States and with other Latin American countries. Nevertheless, prorepublican factions began to grow in power, and the army overthrew the emperor in 1889. Brazil was ruled directly or indirectly by the military until 1894, when the first civilian president, Prudente de Moraes, was elected. Coffee and rubber exports generated great profits around the turn of the century; the coffee and rubber boom, however, collapsed in the early 20th century. Political unrest culminated in a 1930 revolt led by Getulio \TVargas\t. Vargas's tenure marked the start of industrialization for Brazil. Overthrown in 1945, he was reelected in 1950, but committed suicide when the army demanded his resignation in 1954. A new capital was established at Brasilia to encourage development of the interior, but the concern of the military and business leaders turned to the pressing problems of social unrest and excessive inflation. In 1964 the military overthrew President Joao \TGoulart\t. For the next 21 years, Brazil was ruled by a succession of military governments. Although the country's economy prospered, the military suspended constitutional guarantees and imposed strict press censorship. These policies were moderated under President Ernesto \TGeisel\t, who was succeeded by Gen. Joao Baptista de Oliveira \TFigueiredo\t in 1979. Civilian government was restored fully in 1985 when an electoral college chose Tancredo de Almeida Neves as president. He died before taking office and was succeeded by Jose \TSarney\t. A new constitution took effect in October 1988. Sarney's directly elected successor, Fernando \TCollor de Mello\t, took office in March 1990. He launched a "shock" program to reduce inflation and government spending and endorsed the notion of "debt-for-nature" swaps, designed to protect tracts of the Amazon rain forest in exchange for forgiveness of foreign debt. James N. Snaden Bibliography: Baer, Werner, The Brazilian Economy, 2d ed. (1983); Bethel, Leslie, ed., Colonial Brazil (1987); Bresser Pereira, Luis C., Development and Crisis in Brazil, 1930-1982 (1983); Burns, E. B., History of Brazil, 2d ed. (1980); Davis, S. H., Victims of the Miracle: Development and the Indians of Brazil (1977); Flynn, Peter, Brazil, a Political Analysis (1978); Moran, Emilio, The Dilemma of Amazonian Development (1982); Nyrop, Richard F., ed., Brazil, 4th ed. (1983); Skidmore, Thomas E., The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964-1985 (1988); Stern, Erwin, ed., Dictionary of Brazilian Literature (1988); Wagley, Charles, An Introduction to Brazil, rev. ed. (1971). See also: \TLatin America, history of\t; \TLatin-American art and architecture\t; \TLatin-American literature\t; \TLatin-American music and dance\t.