The continent of South America stretches for about 7,400 km (4,600 mi) from north to south and about 5,150 km (3,200 mi) from east to west, covering more than 17.8 million sq km (6.8 million sq mi). It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Central America and the Caribbean Sea are found to the north. The Drake Passage separates South America from Antarctica to the south. The westernmost coast is situated at about the same longitude as Miami, Fla. South America is the world's fourth largest continent--it is smaller than North America but larger than Antarctica. Offshore areas considered part of South America include \TEaster Island\t, the \TFalkland Islands\t (or Malvinas), the \TGalapagos Islands\t, and \TTierra del Fuego\t. South America has a number of outstanding features. The \TAndes\t, which parallel the western side of the continent, form the longest mountain chain in the world. The \TAmazon River\t surpasses all others in volume of flow, and the Amazon Basin is the world's largest area of tropical rain forest. The continent is part of Latin America, so named because most of its settlers during the colonial period came from the Iberian Peninsula. The cultural characteristics brought with these immigrants included the Spanish and Portuguese languages, the Roman Catholic religion, a two-class social system, and a belief that large landholdings impart great prestige to the owner. The latter two cultural characteristics have only recently begun to disappear. The first European explorer to sight the coast of South America was Christopher \TColumbus\t while on his third voyage to the New World in 1498. The first explorer to recognize the Western Hemisphere as separate from Asia was the Italian Amerigo \TVespucci\t, for whom the Americas are named. The 1494 Treaty of \TTordesillas\t divided the continent into an eastern sector, in which the Portuguese could settle, and a western sector, for the Spaniards. Perhaps the most outstanding of the \Tconquistadors\t was Francisco \TPizarro\t, who overthrew the \TInca\t empire in 1532. Argentina was the first of South America's colonies to gain independence (1810). In recent years industrialization, social upheaval, and political ferment have characterized many of South America's nations. Dictatorial regimes have governed most of them at various times. South America is divided politically into 12 independent countries, 1 French overseas department, and 1 colony. Land and Resources South America may be divided into eight major geomorphological provinces. Outstanding among these regions is that of the Andes, which extend for more than 6,440 km (4,000 mi) along the Pacific coast. These high, rugged mountains form a barrier to east-west travel. More than 60 peaks are higher than any found within the conterminous states of the United States. The highest peak in the Andes is Mount \TAconcagua\t on the Chile-Argentina border, which reaches an elevation of 6,960 m (22,834 ft). The Andes serve as a drainage divide for the continent's rivers and, as part of the "Pacific Ring of Fire," they are subject to a great deal of volcanic activity and frequent earthquakes. The chain of mountains is seldom more than about 320 km wide (200 mi), except in Colombia where it splits into three distinct ranges and in Bolivia where it widens to about 645 km (400 mi) to accommodate the Bolivian Altiplano--a large intermontane basin lying more than 3,650 m (about 12,000 ft) above sea level. Many of the mountains are snowcapped all year, and in southern Chile the effects of glaciation are evident in the U-shaped valleys and fjords. The rocks that make up the mountains are largely hard and crystalline and contain several types of mineral ores such as copper and tin and precious gems, including emeralds. Another of South America's physiographic regions is the Brazilian Shield. It comprises Precambrian crystalline rocks overlain with erosional sediments. The more resistant sandstone has been exposed to form buttes and mesas. Elsewhere, resistant diabase is associated with the presence of cuestas--elevated landforms with one side steeply scarped--over which flow a number of rivers, producing spectacular waterfalls. The Guiana Shield, located in the northern part of the continent, is essentially similar in origin, development, and character to the Brazilian Shield. The major difference between the two is that the mesas in the Guiana Shield are higher in elevation. \TAngel Falls\t, the highest cataract in the world, lies within the Guiana Shield. Two South American landform regions can be classified as either highland or lowland. One of these is the Parana Plateau, often considered part of the Brazilian Shield. It is named for the river that slices through it. Made up of one of the world's single largest accumulations of lava, the Parana Plateau resulted from a long series of lava flows. The second marginal region is the low Patagonian Plateau (or high Patagonian Plain). \TPatagonia\t has a rough surface. An ancient massif, it was first covered by sediments and then eroded by streams flowing eastward from the Andes. The steep-walled valleys through which many of these streams flow make north-south travel very difficult. Insofar as lowlands are concerned, South America has narrow coastal plains, but the Amazon Basin is the largest of the continent's landform provinces, covering about 7 million sq km (2.7 million sq mi). Composed of very thick sedimentary deposits, it is flat to gently rolling. The Amazon Basin is widest near the Andes and narrowest near the mouth of the Amazon River. The Orinoco Plain is separated from the Amazon Basin by a low interfluve. Like the Amazon Basin, it is named for and is a product of the major river that flows across it. The last of the lowlands is the Parana-Paraguay-Plata Plain, where an ancient rocky surface has been covered by alluvium. Only a few peaks of the original surface protrude through the alluvium, much like the tips of icebergs. Those lowland areas in which the layers of sedimentary rocks are relatively undisturbed are frequently associated with sizable deposits of petroleum. Laterization in tropical regions frequently results in the formation of iron and aluminum ore. South America has few good harbors. The best is probably that of \TRio de Janeiro\t. Although others may have protected anchorages, their harbors are often shallow and must be continually dredged to permit access for oceangoing vessels. Climate Many factors affect the climate of South America. Latitude is the most significant of these. Tropicality is the dominant feature of South America's climate, and much of the continent remains frost-free throughout the year. Altitude is a second factor, for the most part moderating the hot, tropical temperatures. The ocean's proximity--in combination with prevailing winds--affects the amounts and distribution of rainfall. Several coastal areas receive in excess of 2,540 mm (100 in) of rainfall annually; these are the southeast coast of Brazil, the region from Guyana to the mouth of the Amazon, the Pacific coast of Colombia, and southern Chile. The Amazon Basin also receives abundant precipitation, where most rainfall is convectional in origin. In contrast no rainfall has ever been recorded at Calama, Chile, in the \TAtacama Desert\t. This aridity results from latitudinal position and a stable temperature inversion consisting of cold air brought by the Humboldt current underlying warmer upper air. The invasion of air masses and the frequent passage of cyclonic storms account for both the precipitation and the variability of weather in the southern part of the continent. Finally, human habitation has altered the climate, especially in urban regions where air pollution has increased temperatures and the amounts of rainfall. Seven major climate types are found in South America. Most of the Amazon Basin and coastal regions where onshore winds blow for much of the year have a tropical rainy climate. Rainfall there is not only heavy but evenly distributed throughout the year. Daytime temperatures typically reach 29 deg C (85 deg F). Arid and semiarid climates dominate the coast of Peru and northern Chile. Aridity also characterizes a small area in northeast Brazil and a diagonal strip crossing Argentina from northwest to southeast. Wide temperature extremes, low rainfall, and unreliable precipitation typify these dry regions. The principal characteristic of the tropical wet and dry climate covering most of Brazil and the Orinoco River basin is an alternating precipitation regime. Six months of summer rain followed by six months of winter drought is a consequence of the seasonal shifting of wind, pressure, and precipitation belts. The Mediterranean climate of central Chile also experiences alternating periods of rain and drought--but there the rainfall comes during the wintertime. In contrast, the temperate marine climate of southern Chile is cool, rainy, and windy throughout the year. The humid subtropical climate of southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina is similar to that of the U.S. state of Georgia. Finally, South America's mountain regions experience considerable variation in rainfall and temperature conditions over very short distances, with elevation and exposure the major determinants. Drainage South America's longest river is the Amazon. Originating in the Peruvian Andes, the Amazon flows approximately 6,450 km (4,000 mi) to its mouth in the Atlantic--it is the world's second longest river. No other river approaches its volume of flow, which exceeds that of the world's 10 next largest rivers combined. Oceangoing ships can navigate almost 1,600 km (1,000 mi) upstream, whereas vessels with drafts of 4 m (13 ft) or less can travel about 3,700 km (2,300 mi) upriver. The next largest river system in South America is that of the Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay rivers, the waters from which empty into the Plata estuary. The \TParana River\t is navigable for oceangoing vessels as far upstream as Rosario, Argentina. Boats regularly travel upstream on the \TParaguay River\t to Corumba, Brazil. A large combined bridge and dam completed in 1981 at Salto Grande marks the head of navigation on the \TUruguay River\t. Other navigable rivers in South America include the \TMagdalena River\t in Colombia, the \TOrinoco River\t in Venezuela, and the \TSao Francisco River\t in eastern Brazil. Of these the Magdalena carries the largest amount of general cargo traffic. Massive quantities of iron ore are shipped from the mouth of the Orinoco. The Sao Francisco is more significant for its hydroelectric potential than for its navigability. South America has few sizable lakes. Lake \TTiticaca\t--although not the largest--is the highest navigable body of water in the world. The elevation of its surface is 3,810 m (12,500 ft) above sea level. Lake Titicaca is shared by the countries of Peru and Bolivia, and regular hydrofoil service is available between them. Lake \TMaracaibo\t, in Venezuela, the largest body of water in South America, is connected to the Caribbean Sea by a narrow inlet. Maracaibo is mostly freshwater, shallow, and punctuated frequently by petroleum derricks. Rather more picturesque is the Andean Lake District of Argentina and Chile, a recreational zone reminiscent of Switzerland. Soils Two major categories of soil may be found in the continent. Azonal soils, poorly developed and immature, may be subdivided into the thin, stony lithosol or mountain soil and the thick, rich regosol or alluvial soil, recently deposited on river floodplains. Well-stratified zonal soils are much more widespread and important than azonal soils. Red-colored lateritic soils are perhaps the most infertile because most of their nutrients have been washed away by abundant rainfall. Much of their humus content has been destroyed by the rapidity of bacterial action associated with continuously hot temperatures in the wet tropics. Most of the rainy tropical and subtropical lowland regions of South America have lateritic soils, often underlain with a hardpan layer. Dark-colored grassland soils, also zonal in nature, are among the most fertile known. Favorable temperatures and adequate rainfall, along with the best possible source of humus--grass, provide optimal conditions for fertile soil development. Argentina and Uruguay are fortunate in that each contains broad areas of these rich grassland soils. Desert soils, developed in response to arid climates, can be agriculturally productive if irrigated and if their mineral salt content is low. Vegetation Natural vegetation is often referred to as the "mirror of climate" because specific plant types are usually found in association with particular climates. The rainiest parts of tropical South America are covered with tropical rain forest, or selva. Three "tiers" of vegetation can be distinguished in the rain forest, the tallest of which comprise the tropical trees. Many hardwoods have such high specific gravities that they do not float. These trees experience no dormant period and therefore lack annual growth rings. Root growth extends far below the surface to absorb any available moisture, and support for the tree is provided by buttress roots. Their interlocking crowns form a canopy that blocks most sunlight. Jungle results where sunlight reaches the forest floor. The incredible biological diversity of the Amazonian selva is now threatened by deforestation resulting from road construction, lumbering, and new rural settlement. Tropical hardwood trees such as mahogany are especially prized. In southern Brazil and in central and southern Chile, mid-latitude forests with mixed stands of trees are common. South America as a whole is seriously short of softwood lumber, which many countries are forced to import. Tropical scrub woodlands cover large areas in northeastern Brazil, western Paraguay, and northern Argentina. Dense tangles of thorny bushes are common in the interior of northeast Brazil. The quebracho (literally, "break-ax") of Paraguay and Argentina is a source of tannin for leather processing. Regions with a summer rainy season are normally associated with savanna vegetation. Such areas are generally used for cattle ranching. In the \TPampas\t and other parts of northeastern Argentina, in Uruguay, and in the far south of Brazil, prairie grasslands that have been extensively modified by human action predominate. Desert shrub vegetation is related to arid climates, whereas in the mountains plants are arranged into zones based on elevation. In sequence from low to higher elevations, these zones are known as the tierra caliente (or zone of tropical crops), tierra templada (zone of coffee), tierra fria (zone of grains), the zone of uncleared forest, and the zone of alpine meadows. Fauna Despite extensive areas of tropical grassland, South America has no large game animals such as are associated with the plains of Africa. Nevertheless, the continent offers a tremendous variety of wildlife, and--as in Africa--some species are endangered. In the rain forest, monkeys (which, unlike their Old World relatives, have prehensile tails) and parrots are declining as they fall prey to hunters. The chinchilla is native to the continent. The electric eel and the flesh-eating piranha can be found in South American waters. One of the most distinctive animals of the South American tropical forest and grassland is the tapir, a hoglike creature standing higher than 1 m (40 in) at the shoulders. Equally distinctive is the rhea, a relative of the ostrich, which inhabits the mid-latitude grasslands of Argentina. An endangered species is the condor, which nests along the Pacific coast. In the Andes Mountains, Indians have domesticated llamas for use as beasts of burden and guinea pigs for food. Other animals found only in South America are the anaconda, the capybara, the giant otter, and the spectacled bear. On the Galapagos Islands, about 965 km (600 mi) west of Ecuador, are many animals found nowhere else on Earth. The naturalist Charles Darwin visited the islands in 1835, studying such life forms as the flightless cormorant, the giant land tortoise, and the marine iguana. Mineral Resources South America's mineral resources have often been described as superlative but poorly matched. For example, Brazil and Chile both have massive deposits of iron ore but lack the good-quality coking coal needed to convert it to steel. Recent discoveries of iron ore may eventually give Brazil the world's second largest proven reserves, after the \TUSSR\t. Venezuela has the second largest production of iron ore on the continent; it is followed by Peru and Chile. Brazil also has sizable deposits of manganese and bauxite, and Colombia has become a major exporter of coal. Bolivia has long been among the world's leading tin exporters. Chile's reserves of copper are surpassed by no other nation. Chile also usually leads world nations in annual copper production. Peru is South America's second most important producer of copper. Energy resources have gained increased attention in recent years. In this regard Venezuela reigns supreme because of its petroleum deposits. Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru have more modest--but still significant--oil resources. Other notable minerals and the countries known for their export are as follows: lead, zinc, silver, and mercury (Peru); gold and emeralds (Colombia); sulfur, iodine, and nitrates (Chile); phosphates (Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela). Arable Land The amount of a nation's arable land is not only a function of its size but of such other factors as topography, climate, and soil fertility. Another important consideration is land quality, in part a function of the preceding factors. Brazil has the largest amount of arable land of any South American nation--more than 300,000 sq km (115,830 sq mi). This figure represents almost 40% of the continent's total. Argentina ranks second, with about 214,400 sq km (82,800 sq mi). Although no other countries in South America have as much arable land, both of these nations suffer from handicaps. Much of the soil in the tropical parts of Brazil is low in fertility, whereas a great deal of Argentina is arid or semiarid. Both conditions limit crop yields. PEOPLE South America's racial heritage stems from three basic sources: Caucasian, African, and Indian. The Indians, who arrived perhaps 11,000 to 14,000 years ago, were at first hunters and gatherers. Many groups took up agriculture about 5,000 years ago. Three major groups settled in and around the Andes: the \TChibcha\t in the north; the Indians subjugated by the Incas in the area of present-day Peru; and the \TAraucanians\t to the south. Other groups settled along the shores of the Caribbean, in the tropical rain forests, and on the eastern margins of the continent. All these Indians together are thought to have numbered about 14 million in the year 1500, approximately one-third of whom lived in the Inca empire. The Europeans arrived in the 1500s, enslaved the Indians, and forced them to work in mines and on plantations. At the same time, European missionaries were converting the Indians to Christianity. The distribution of Indians influenced the direction of the Spanish colonial effort more than any other factor. Although large numbers of Indians died of mistreatment or exposure to European diseases against which they had no immunity, millions of their descendants survive. Indian women intermarried with the European conquerors, and from these unions a new race was born--the mestizo or mameluco (the word used in Brazil). Because of labor shortages in several areas, the Europeans imported thousands of black slaves from Africa, the largest number brought to Brazil and Colombia. They also intermarried with their masters, creating a new racial type known as the mulatto. The first pronouncement against slavery on the continent was British Guiana's Emancipation Act of 1833. The process was completed with Brazil's abolition of slavery in 1888. South America's ethnic composition has been further modified by the arrival of large numbers of Europeans who have immigrated since 1850, coming from such nations as Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, and Poland. The Japanese are among the more recent arrivals. Today the continent's racial geography can be summarized as follows: Indians are concentrated in the Andean Highlands (especially in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador) and in the wet tropical lowlands. Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil are inhabited primarily by pure Caucasians. Blacks and mulattos are dominant in several parts of Brazil and Colombia; elsewhere, mestizos are in the majority. Spanish is the official language of nine countries in South America. In Brazil, Portuguese is spoken. English and Dutch are used in Guyana and Suriname, respectively. French is the language of French Guiana. Many Indians are monolingual, speaking only their aboriginal languages. As many as 82 different Indian language groups have been identified. Roman Catholicism is found throughout South America; only Guyana and Suriname are predominantly Protestant. Argentina has the largest Jewish population, estimated at about 300,000 (1988), some of whom live in agricultural colonies. Education and Health Argentina, Chile, Guyana, and Uruguay do the most effective job of educating their citizens; each has a literacy rate of 90% or greater. Much further down the scale is Bolivia, where about 25% of the population was estimated to be illiterate in 1988. The percentage of literate women is generally less than that of literate men. Rural areas have a greater percentage of illiterates than urban areas. Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Guyana, and Colombia fail to supply their people with adequate diets in terms of caloric and protein intakes. The leading causes of death by country are dysentery (especially in Colombia), tuberculosis (Peru), whooping cough (Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru), and measles (Ecuador, Bolivia, and Colombia). In South America leading causes of morbidity among reportable diseases are syphilis and typhoid fever; Infant mortality rates are exceptionally high in some South American countries despite continuing medical progress. For example, more than 110 of every 1,000 Bolivian infants under the age of one died in 1988. In the more developed nations, though, life expectancy exceeds 70 years. Demography The population of tropical South American countries is increasing rapidly. In 1988 their rate of natural increase exceeded 2.2% a year, comparable to that of Mexico and Central America, but lower than that of Africa. Paraguay and Ecuador had the highest growth rates (2.9% and 2.8%, respectively). The temperate-climate nations of Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, however, had a combined growth rate of just 1.5% in 1988, below the world average of 1.7%. The substantial growth rates result from recently lowered death rates in concert with continuing high birthrates. Approximately 35% of South America's population are under 15 years of age. The population is unevenly distributed in South America. Most of the people live in clusters around the periphery of the continent--a reflection of its early role as a supplier of raw materials to the European nations. This uneven population distribution lessens the value of population density figures. South America's most densely populated country is Ecuador, with 37 persons per sq km (93 per sq mi). Urbanization has brought about a significant redistribution of people and has resulted in the rapid growth of South American cities in the past several decades. Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile are all close to 85% urban. Brazil's cities are growing at an annual rate of 5%. If the current trend continues, \TSao Paulo\t, Brazil, is likely to become the world's second largest city (behind Mexico City) by the end of the century. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND COMMERCE South America has not fully entered the age of industrialization. Venezuela was South America's leader in per-capita gross national product in 1986, at $2,930. However, much of Venezuela's wealth comes from its petroleum exports; income in the country is in fact very unevenly distributed. Argentina, ranking near the top with $2,350, has a much more balanced economy. In terms of gross national product, Brazil ranks first, with $250 billion in 1986. Argentina is a somewhat distant second, with $72 billion. Guyana is last, with only $400 million. An important aspect of the general South American economy in the 1980s was mounting foreign debt, a result of such factors as recession, inflation, and trade imbalances. By 1988, Brazil had a total foreign debt of $121 billion; Argentina's was $55 billion, and Venezuela's exceeded $35 billion. The debt crisis continued through the 1980s, although individual countries imposed domestic austerity measures and international cooperation on the debt problems increased. Agriculture South American countries have been known for the agricultural commodities they export. The income derived from the sale of foodstuffs is used to purchase food and manufactured goods. Brazil has long been the world's leading exporter of coffee, despite recent production declines resulting from severe frosts. Brazil is a world leader in sugarcane production and also one of the world's leading exporters of cacao. Bananas are the principal crop of Ecuador, which exports a significant percentage of the world's total. Argentina and Brazil are widely known for their beef cattle. About 93 million head roam the pastures of Brazil, whereas Argentine pastures support close to 53.7 million head (mid-1980s estimates). Although Uruguay ranks second behind Argentina in numbers of sheep, it has 7.08 sheep per person--the highest ratio in the world. Pigs are raised throughout South America. The most important grain crops are maize, rice, and wheat. South Americans supplement these foods with root crops such as cassava and potatoes. South American farmers have been successful in their struggle to keep ahead of the baby boom. Per-capita food harvests continue to increase. Forestry and Fishing Although short of softwood lumber, South America's forests are the source of innumerable byproducts. Among these are quinine (from the bark of the cinchona tree), eucalyptol (a cough-drop ingredient taken from the eucalyptus tree), rubber, chicle (chewing-gum base), coconuts, tannin (for leather curing), and palm oil (squeezed from the tree's nuts and used to make soap and cosmetics). Brazil is the leading exporter of forest products. Peru is exploiting one of South America's major biological resources just off its coast: the anchovy. Peruvian fishermen caught enough anchovies during the 1960s to propel their country into first place in the world for volume of fish caught. The anchovies are ground into fish meal, which is exported primarily to Europe for use in chicken feed and in fertilizer. Catches declined during the 1970s and 1980s because of overfishing and shifting ocean currents. Transportation The most industrialized countries have the most highly developed land transportation facilities. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile have by far the longest rail networks. These same three countries also have more lengthy paved and gravel road systems than any other nation in South America. Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia are able to supplement their railroads and highways with important inland waterways. The airplane is particularly important in maintaining communications in the rugged Andean countries. Trade The nations of South America have joined with some of their neighboring countries to the north to form the \TLatin American Free Trade Association\t (LAFTA). Its purposes are to encourage intraregional trade and at the same time to create a common tariff wall for imports from other regions. Exports have diversified somewhat in recent decades. The worldwide oil glut of the mid-1980s reduced income from the still important petroleum exports. The ten leading export commodities are: oil, coffee, iron ore, soybeans, copper, beef, maize, bananas, cacao, and cotton. The United States is the leading trade partner for both imports and exports for almost every South American country. The balance of trade during most years of the 1970s was unfavorable to South America as a whole; during the 1980s, however, the region experienced an upswing in exports. In 1986, for example, Brazil reported a $9.5 billion trade surplus, much of it coming from exports of manufactured goods. Some countries manage to use tourism (along with loans and foreign capital investments) to balance their budgets. Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela in particular have attracted many tourists. Energy Petroleum is one of South America's principal sources of power. The only net exporters of oil, however, are Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, and Bolivia. Brazil, which has the highest deficit, reduced petroleum imports substantially during the 1980s. South America is estimated to have 17.3% of the world's potential water power. Of this amount, Brazil has the largest share; it generated more than $8 billion worth of hydroelectricity in 1986. The Brazilians inaugurated Itaipu, the largest hydroelectric installation in the world, in 1984. The neighboring country of Paraguay--a partner with Brazil in major hydroelectric projects--is one of the world's leading exporters of electricity. James N. Snaden Bibliography: \TGeneral\t: Black, Jan K., ed., Latin America: Its Problems and Its Prospects (1984); Brooks, John, ed., The South American Handbook (1984); Goodman, E. J., The Exploration of South America: An Annotated Bibliography (1983); James, Preston, and Minkel, Clarence W., Latin America, 5th ed. (1986); UCLA Latin American Center, Statistical Abstract of Latin America (annual). \Tgeography\t: Blakemore, Harold, and Smith, Clifford T., eds., Latin America: Geographical Perspectives, 2d ed. (1983); Cole, J. P., Latin America: An Economic and Social Geography (1965); Davidson, W. V., and Parsons, J. J., eds., Historical Geography of Latin America (1980); Morris, Arthur S., South America, 3d ed. (1987); Webb; K. E., The Geography of Latin America (1972). \Tnatural\t \Thistory\t: Bates, Marston, The Land and Wildlife of South America (1964); Dorst, Jean, South America and Central America (1967); Fittkau, E. J., et al., eds., Biogeography and Ecology in South America, 2 vols. (1968-69); Jenks, William F., ed., Handbook of South American Geology (1956); Meyer de Schauensee, Rodolphe, A Guide to the Birds of South America (1970). \TPeople\t: Morner, Magnus, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (1967) and Adventurers and Proletarians: The Story of Migrants in Latin America (1985); Steward, Julian H., ed., Handbook of South American Indians, 7 vols. (1946-59). \Teconomics\t AND \LPolitic\ls: Anderson, Charles W., Politics and Economic Change in Latin America (1966); Barclay, Glen, Struggle for a Continent: The Diplomatic History of South America, 1917-1945 (1972); Beyer, Glenn H., ed., The Urban Explosion in Latin America (1967); Duran, Esperanza, Latin America and the World Recession (1985); Gilbert, Alan, et al., Urbanization in Contemporary Latin America (1982); Inter-American Development Bank, Economic and Social Progress in Latin America (annual); Wesson, Robert, Coping with the Latin American Debt (1988); Wiarda, Howard J., and Kline, Harvey F., eds., Latin American Politics and Development, 2d rev. ed. (1985). See also: \TLatin America, history of\t; individual countries, major cities, and regions of South America.