The term prehistoric art refers generally to the paintings, engravings, and sculptures created from about 35,000 to 12,000 years ago during the last Ice Age in Eurasia. The term is also often applied to the art of the succeeding Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures in this area, as well as to the rock art produced by various nonliterate cultures from later periods. PALEOLITHIC ART The earliest stone tools date from more than 2 million years ago, but prehistoric art is a relatively recent development; it first appeared during the Upper \TPaleolithic Period\t, the last division of the Old Stone Age. It is associated with the remains of \TCro-Magnon man\t (Homo sapiens sapiens), who appeared in Europe about 35,000 years ago, having gradually replaced the \TNeanderthalers\t. It does not follow that no art existed among the Neanderthalers; their burial sites, some of which may date from as far back as 100,000 years ago, suggest a preoccupation with life after death and possibly with animal cults. The evidence also suggests that body ornament may have been used, but so far no direct evidence of Neanderthal art has been found. Various attempts at portraying animals and symbols, however, must have been made before the Cro-Magnon people executed their remarkably elaborate works of art. The Paleolithic surroundings of 35,000 years ago were harsh, like those of semiglacial Siberia today. Great herds of bison and reindeer roamed through the plains of central and western Europe. Extinct species like the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros flourished and were successfully hunted; their bones have been found in the caves where the hunters lived. The general impression is of small, nomadic bands of hunter-gatherers, moving with their prey, living in open-air encampments during the summer and taking winter quarters wherever caves or rockshelters were available. Types of Art Paleolithic art appeared in the form of either (1) pictorial images or markings engraved, carved, or painted on the walls and roofs of rockshelters or caves; or (2) portable works engraved or painted on stone, bone, or ivory or carved in the round on soft stone or ivory. In eastern Europe, as at the Czechoslovakian site of \TDolni Vestonice\t, figurines were modeled in clay, placed in the ashes near a fire, and hardened by heat. Although wood may also have been used, no examples have survived. Portable art includes figurines, necklaces, or bracelets, as well as decorated tools like spear-throwers or harpoons. The engravings seen on these objects often closely resemble those on cave walls and are useful for dating mural art. The cave at \TAltamira\t, Spain, provides an example. There, at a level containing \TSolutrean\t artifacts, engraved stone slabs were found. The finely hatched hinds with which these slabs were decorated proved to be identical in technique with the figures seen on the walls. The first report of cave art was in 1879, when the painted ceiling at Altamira was discovered. The claim that this represented Stone Age art, however, aroused general disbelief. Although cave paintings had been noticed before, it seemed impossible that art of such sophistication and excellence should have been the work of primitive people. After the Altamira finds had been dismissed as forgeries, new finds were made, some of them in caves that had been sealed since the Stone Age. These subsequent discoveries, like that at La Mouthe in the Dordogne region of France, slowly overcame opposition. Finally, at the beginning of this century, Paleolithic art was recognized as authentic. To date, about 230 caves containing cave art are known; the great majority are in France and Spain, although a number have also been found in Italy, Portugal, and the \TUSSR\t. Anatolian sites are still under investigation. One of the reasons for the concentration of cave art in western Europe may be the presence there of many limestone cliffs containing caves and rockshelters. The geographical range of portable art is much wider; indeed, a great number of the so-called Venus figurines--small, highly stylized statuettes of nude, usually obese women--come from the \TUSSR\t, where they were made before 25,000 BC. Periods Upper Paleolithic cultures are recognized by their distinctive tools; characteristic tool traditions also serve to label periods and styles of prehistoric art. The earliest representative style is the \TAurignacian\t I (c.30,000 BC). Art associated with this culture typically appears in the form of animals engraved in rigid outline or painted black or red, finger drawings on clay, imprints of hands, and engravings--chiefly representing abstract symbols--on slabs. During the late Aurignacian and \TPerigordian\t (also sometimes called \TGravettian\t) periods (c.29,000-c.20,000 BC) the quality of art improved, and the animals are sometimes shaded--although they are still shown isolated, with little sense of composition. Symbols, often ambiguous in meaning, become numerous and complicated; some may be interpreted as huts, traps, or weapons, but their real significance remains obscure. The succeeding Solutrean culture (c.19,000-c.15,000 BC) is known mainly through large bas-relief friezes like those at the French site of Cap-Blanc; the monumental paintings at the Pech-Merle cave, France, are also ascribed to this period. Solutrean portable art is represented mainly at the cave of Parpallo, near Valencia in Spain, with its thousands of engraved or painted limestone slabs. The high point of Paleolithic art, however, dates from the period of \TMagdalenian\t culture (c.15,000-10,000 BC), to which belong the majority of the finest cave paintings, including those of \TLascaux\t and Altamira. Also produced during the Magdalenian period were carved friezes, such as the astonishing reclining women at La Madeleine, France, as well as numerous elaborate portable works. Precisely what caused the marked proliferation and refinement of art during the Magdalenian period remains unknown to archaeologists, although some see it as pointing to the existence of successful hunting communities living in a favorable environment and able to devote part of their time to artistic efforts. Techniques Sculpted cave art is generally found in shallow rockshelters or at the entrances of caves; it was probably executed by daylight. Most cave art, however, is found deep inside the caves. At \TNiaux\t, France, for example, the first paintings are about 550 m (600 yd) from the entrance; the distance from the cave mouth to the great fish at La Pileta, Spain, is about 1,190 m (1,300 yd). To work inside the caves, Cro-Magnon artists used torches; the smudges caused by these can still be seen on the walls. Some shallow stone bowls or lamps containing a residue of burned animal fat were found at Lascaux. Although many symbols and some masked human figures have been found, animals are the chief subject of Paleolithic art. They may be carved in high or low relief, modeled in clay, or engraved either deeply or finely and then hatched. The paintings exhibit various techniques: they may be done in outline only, filled in with flat wash, or shaded in one or several colors. Finger drawings were made by either impressing the fingers on wet clay or dipping them into paint. Hand imprints, sometimes considered the earliest art, may be positive, executed by applying the paint-daubed hand against the wall, or negative, as when pigment is applied around the outline of the hand. The natural mineral pigments included yellow ocher, red ocher, manganese, and iron oxide; charcoal was also sometimes used as a colorant. The colors were ground and mixed with animal fat, vegetable juices, water, or blood and then applied with a stick or brush. The often-seen spray effects may have been obtained by blowing pigments through a hollow reed. Subject Matter The animals depicted are mostly mammoths, bison, horses, deer, wild cattle and goats, and wild boars. The woolly rhinoceros, antelope, cave lion, wolf, and cave bear are, like birds and fish, more rarely shown. Although the reindeer was an important food source, it is very seldom pictured. Some animals may represent composite figures, such as the representation that some archaeologists identify as a trout with the tail of a tuna at Pindal, in northern Spain. Although the relative size of the animals may violate the rules of realism, the drawing is always naturalistic and accurate. Often, in fact, these artworks are masterpieces of their kind, rivaling the finest art of any later age in force, splendor, and elegance. To date, no wholly satisfactory theories as to the meaning and interpretation of cave art have been offered. Because the cave paintings and engravings are often superimposed, so that earlier work is obliterated or defaced, the act of creation itself may have been of prime importance and the aesthetic effect only secondary. Much cave art is hidden in dark and barely accessible places where it never could have been seen by more than one or two people at a time; therefore it cannot have been meant to be viewed by a group. Perhaps such art served a ritual function in connection with passage rites, like those of primitive peoples living today. On the other hand, the footprints around the clay bison at the French cave site of Tuc d'Audoubert indicate a gathering of individuals for a particular purpose, possibly an initiation rite. Although some figures of wounded animals may hint at hunting magic, many of the portable artworks appear to have been primarily decorative; others, notably the female figurines, such as the famous \TVenus of Willendorf\t, suggest a fertility cult. MESOLITHIC ART The end of the Paleolithic Period was marked by great climatic changes and a rise of sea levels, while forest rapidly replaced open grassland and the semiglacial fauna disappeared or retreated to northern regions. As the climate grew milder, caves were deserted both as dwelling places and as sanctuaries. The \TMesolithic Period\t, or Middle Stone Age, began about 9000 BC and lasted until about 4000 BC in western Europe, although it was much shorter in such regions as the Near East. The tradition of cave art survived in the Levant rock art of eastern Spain and in the Scandinavian and Russian rock engravings, whereas portable art was replaced in many areas by the \TAzilian\t painted or engraved pebbles. Although the latter are confined to abstract designs, they may have had symbolic implications. The rock art of eastern Spain is generally found in shallow rockshelters where access is difficult. Painted representations at Dos Aguas, Gasulla, and Polvovin, among other important Spanish sites, provide a fascinating insight into the daily life of the nomadic hunter-gatherers, for the art depicts people tracking, hunting singly or in groups, doing battle, dancing, and gathering honey or fruit. The Mesolithic peoples apparently lived much as their Paleolithic ancestors had, but in a warmer climate with a temperate fauna among which deer and wild oxen predominated. Their complex artistic representations often reveal some idea of perspective and composition, although various styles recalling Magdalenian traditions are also recognizable. In Mesolithic Scandinavia and northern Russia the Paleolithic rock art tradition was maintained in the form of huge animal engravings, mainly on cliffs, showing reindeer, elks, bears, and fish, notably whales. These works, dated at about 5000 BC, may in fact have been executed by late Magdalenians who followed the dwindling herds of reindeer to their present habitat. Animal engravings near the Sea of Azov are in the Aurignaco-Perigordian style and may have been derived directly from the local Paleolithic cultures; those of the Angara valley are closer to the Magdalenian style. NEOLITHIC, BRONZE, AND IRON AGE ART The \TNeolithic Period\t, or New Stone Age, began in the Near East by about 8000 BC; within several millennia it had spread throughout Anatolia and eastern Europe. The new way of life of the cattle-raising farmers favored the establishment of sedentary villages; the rock-art tradition continued, however. Neolithic rock art is characterized by marked simplification and schematization; the figures grow progressively coarser and heavier. The scenes depict mainly domestic activities, with little indication of hunting or gathering. This schematic rock art is well represented in Spain, with a large concentration in the area of Ciudad Real, as well as in southern France and Italy; such art dates from c.4000 to c.2000 BC. Also produced during the Neolithic Period were a variety of portable clay statuettes of female figures apparently related to some form of fertility cult centered on a \Tmother goddess\t. Numerous figurines dating from the 4th to the 2d millennium BC have been found at sites in eastern Europe and in the \TUSSR\t, notably in southern Turkmenistan and between the Dnieper and Dniestr rivers in the Ukraine. The Neolithic statuettes generally appear far less stylized than the carved Venus figurines of the preceding Paleolithic Period. The female sexual characteristics are often exaggerated on the Neolithic examples, and the modeled clay surfaces of the figures are sometimes decorated with incised lines or painted ornamentation. Beginning in the 4th millennium BC the cultures associated with the erection of megalithic monuments often decorated their large burial chambers and alignments of standing stones with engraved symbols (see \Tmegalith\t). Some of the most impressive examples of carved megalithic structures are found in Malta, northern France, and Ireland, as at \TNewgrange\t, where decorated megalithic monuments date from c.3500 BC. \Lmenhir\ls--single, freestanding megalithic stones--are also sometimes carved, with notable examples in Portugal, Spain, and Corsica. During the \TBronze Age\t, schematic figures and symbols dating from c.2000 BC were often superimposed on earlier works of rock art in Spain, Scandinavia, and the Lake Onega region of Karelia, \TUSSR\t. The last prehistoric rock art of Europe is that of the \TIron Age\t, in which chariots and ploughs are often depicted. Although some of the engravings at the Italian sites of Monte Bego and Val Camonica may date from the Bronze Age, most are ascribed to the Early Iron Age, after 1000 BC. OTHER TRADITIONS OF PREHISTORIC ROCK ART Africa Prehistoric rock art is not limited to Europe. In fact, the Saharan and Libyan deserts of Africa may constitute the world's largest repository of open-air art. Various styles have been recorded in North Africa, the most ancient being that of the engraved or painted wild cattle, which may date from as far back as 6500 BC; scenes that include hunters or herdspeople, as at \TTassili n'Ajjer\t in the Algerian Sahara, are more recent. Several links between the Saharan rock drawings and early dynastic Egyptian art have been found; scenes with charioteers and horses may be as recent as 500 BC. The nomadic \TSan\t (Bushman) people of Tanzania, Zimbabwe (Rhodesia), South Africa, and South-West Africa have also left an impressive pictorial record in the form of numerous paintings and engravings in caves and on rock faces. Many of the paintings, which typically depict scenes of warfare, the hunt, and mythological subjects, are characterized by subtle shading and naturalistic modeling of the figures. Although difficult to date, examples of San art have been discovered dating from as early as 15,000 BC; the outstanding scene of animals from Philipp's Cave, South Africa, is dated c.1500 BC. The San tradition has actually been carried well into modern times, the more recent painting often showing European traders with stovepipe hats (see \TAfrican art\t). The Americas A large area of the Americas contains rock art; the largest concentrations are on the northwest coast, the Great Basin area, and in the southwestern United States, as well as in Mexico, Venezuela, and Colombia. Stenciled hands and footprints are frequent motifs. Indian rock art may be naturalistic, symbolic, or schematic. Although a carved animal head from Tepexpan, Mexico, is dated c.9000 BC, many examples of prehistoric Indian art are dated to the recent past; the intricate, mazelike Chibcha rock drawings from Colombia, for example, are ascribed to the 12th century AD. Some North American rock art may date from as far back as 2000 BC, but the frequent representations of figures on horseback could not be earlier than AD c.1550. (See also \TIndians of North America, Art of the\t.) Australia The Australian \TAborigines\t developed a highly original tradition of rock art. The principal preoccupation of aboriginal art is with spirits, usually represented by anthropomorphic figures, and with mythical ancestors and the creation of the world. Another original feature is the "X-ray figure," or animal outline within which the internal organs are shown. Although the tradition of aboriginal rock art has continued until recent times, its origins are very ancient; a hearth from Koonalda that includes some finger engravings is dated 17,000 BC, and a lump of ocher from Kenniff Cave, which contains stenciled hands and other motifs, may date from c.13,000 BC. (See also \TOceanic art\t.) LYA DAMS Bibliography: Bandi, Hans-Georg, et al., Art of the Stone Age (1961); Bataille, Georges, Lascaux: Or, the Birth of Art, trans. by Austryn Wainhouse (1955); Breuil, Henri, Four Hundred Centuries of Cave Art, trans. by Mary Boyle (1952); Brown, G.B., The Art of Cave Dwellers (1982); Giedion, Sigfried, The Beginnings of Art (1962); Grand, Paul M., Prehistoric Art (1967); Graziosi, Paolo, Palaeolithic Art (1960); Heizer, Robert F., and Baumhoff, Martin A., Prehistoric Rock Art of Nevada and Eastern California (1962); Laming, Annette, Lascaux, trans. by Eleanore Armstrong (1959); Leroi-Gourhan, Andre, Treasures of Prehistoric Art, trans. by Norbert Guterman (1967) and The Dawn of European Art (1982); Maringer, Johannes, and Bandi, Hans-Georg, Art in the Ice Age, trans. by Robert Allen (1953); Marshack, Alexander, The Roots of Civilization (1972); Mazonowicz, Douglas, Voices from the Stone Age (1974); Pericot Garcia, Luis, et al., Prehistoric and Primitive Art (1968; rev. ed. 1985); Pfeiffer, John E., The Creative Explosion (1985); Powell, Thomas G. E., Prehistoric Art (1966); Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe (1968); Ucko, Peter J., and Rosenfeld, Andree, Paleolithic Cave Art (1967); Waage, Frederick O., Prehistoric Art (1967).