Fashion and costume, collectively, constitute a minor art that can tell much about a people or culture and the times in which they lived. Although some now remote ages have left little or nothing in the way of written records, their pictorial arts nevertheless reveal what the clothing of these civilizations, or at least their aristocratic classes, was like. ANCIENT TIMES Egypt The vast quantities of art and artifacts that have been preserved by the dry climate of Egypt permit a clear picture of the daily life of this ancient civilization to emerge. Because of the warm temperatures, Egyptian costumes were minimal. The usual fabric was linen, left in its natural off-white color, some of which was so finely woven that it was transparent. The Egyptian practice of weaving gold thread into fabric is today a lost art. Men of the Old Kingdom (c.2686-2181 BC) wore belted loincloths wrapped around the waist; the loincloth was sometimes supplemented by a linen cape or an animal hide draped over the shoulders. By the time of the Middle Kingdom (2133-1786 BC), the loincloth had been lengthened into an intricately pleated skirt. Egyptian women wore linen tunics or skirts that extended from above or below the breast down to the ankle. The garments were often supported by shoulder straps, although some tunics were short-sleeved. The basic design was simple, the elaboration and color of the costumes coming from the belts, collars, and headdresses that accompanied them. Wide collars and other adornments were of gold and semiprecious stone, or of glass. Headdresses were decorated with elaborate depictions of birds or serpents in gold and with colorful stones signifying rank. Black wigs and cosmetics invariably completed the costume. Kohl, a dark pigment, was used by both men and women to outline the eyes and for protection against the Sun. Sandals were worn by all ancient peoples, from the Egyptians to the Romans; the Greeks and Romans also wore leather boots. Mesopotamia Unlike the Egyptians, whose dress changed little over the centuries, the people of Mesopotamia, and the Near East generally, were subject to numerous conquests and thus to more frequent alterations in style. The earliest documented people of the region, the Sumerians, are depicted in art as barefoot and wearing skirts of leather or goatskin; their heads are shaved. Others are shown wearing woolen robes and hats or turbans of curly lambswool. The Babylonians, who succeeded the Sumerians as masters of the region after 2300 BC, wore a type of tunic that later became the basic garment of the Romans. Around these ankle-length tunics the Babylonians draped fringed robes or shawls. The Assyrians, who flourished from 1200 to 612 BC, adopted a similar but more elaborate attire that included tasseled robes embroidered with small, repeated patterns or rosettes. Men's hair was shoulder length and curled, as were their beards; they also wore hats resembling fezzes, that were decorated to indicate rank. Women's attire was similar, being differentiated by headbands made of wool or of stonework and gold. Crete The colorful and lively fashions of the Minoans seem closer in spirit to modern Western dress than any other examples known from ancient times. Women wore bell-shaped skirts with tiers and flounces and brief jackets that showed their breasts. Their hair was long and flowing. The slim-waisted young men went bare-chested, their only clothing a brief loincloth. Their hair, too, was worn long and was adorned with a small feathered hat. Greece Greek dress styles fall into two periods, the archaic and the classic. Archaic dress for women was decorative and resembled clothing from the Near East, its point of origin. Small patterns or rows of embroidered figures appeared on the peplos, the basic garment. The peplos consisted of two rectangles of wool held together at the shoulders by large pins. The material then fell straight or in folds to the ankles and was belted above the waist. After the Persians were driven from Greece in 479 BC, a reaction against Oriental fashion found expression in the wearing of the chiton. This was similar to the peplos but without the patterning and was usually girdled twice. When the chiton was stitched together down the sides, it could be made to form short sleeves. The materials used were linen or wool, depending on the season. For men, the chiton could be knee length. Both men and women draped a large rectangular robe, called a himation, over the chiton; this was often placed over the head, much care being devoted to its draping. Active young men wore a chlamys, a short robe held together at the right shoulder, leaving the right arm free. Rome The basic garment for Roman men was the toga. Although similar to the Greek himation, it was much larger and more complicated in its draping. The size and shape of the toga, as well as the color of the border, indicated social position. Originally of white wool and undecorated, the toga became more elaborate during the late Empire, when gold- embroidered designs were added. Women wore a simpler version of the toga called a palla and beneath that, a tunica. Men also wore the tunica during imperial times. Silk, although known, was extremely costly because it had to be imported from China by way of the Near East. It was woven into women's costumes and was eventually used by men as well. Women's hairstyles were varied and elaborate: wigs and falls supplemented the natural hair; and dyeing the hair blonde became a fad during imperial times. Byzantine Empire: Before 1204 AD Byzantine costume was an elaboration of imperial Roman dress, with changes introduced as a result of Greek contacts with Persian and other Oriental peoples. At court, robes, now heavy with embroidery, were no longer soft-flowing. In some cases, gems were also worked into the mantles and cloaks. Women wore softer robes of silk, with collars and crownlike headdresses encrusted with pearls and precious stones. The total effect, judging from Byzantine art, was one of rigid richness. Barbarian invaders from northern Europe also influenced Byzantine clothing. The tribesmen from colder climates wore snugly fitted clothes, including trousers and hose, and these were adopted for wear under their tunics and robes. THE MIDDLE AGES Romanesque and Early Gothic: 1000-1350 Changes in fashion among the upper classes were infrequent during the greater part of the medieval period, but escalated in response to the novelties brought home from the East by the Crusaders. In both the Arabic lands and the Byzantine Empire, western Europeans found a level of material culture considerably more advanced than their own. After the Crusades, for example, rich fabrics such as satin, velvet, and brocade, became available in Europe for a price. The wood-block printing of fabrics was adopted, and by the 11th century buttons had also arrived from the East. A fitted tunic remained the basic item of apparel for both men and women. An over-tunic, or bliaut, covered the under-tunic, and by 1200 tight lacing drew the woman's bliaut into a form-fitting shape which, girdled at the hips, created a long-waisted appearance. A mantle, hung from the back of the shoulders and descending to the ground, was worn outdoors. The doublet, worn by men from the early 14th to the 17th century, was tight-fitting, sleeved, and belted; it replaced the bliaut over-tunic, which continued to be worn by the lower classes. A similar item was the cotehardie, which could be parti-colored (that is, with contrasting colors appearing on either side, with the colors often alternated in the parti-colored hose) or fur-lined, with the sleeves dagged, or scalloped, at the ends, and often hanging to the ground. Heraldic devices provided additional color to the breast of the cotehardie. Headdress for men included hoods or close-fitting caps tied under the chin. A tall cap with a pointed brim appeared after 1300. Through the 11th century, women's hair was worn free-flowing or braided, although it was veiled for church attendance. By 1200, married women covered their hair with veils and wore wimples under the throat. A barbette, or crownlike headband, secured the veil. Late Gothic: 1350-1500 Late Gothic dress in northern Europe became more elaborate and varied than clothing had ever been before. For the first time, it began to reflect national differences. Some of its more picturesque features, at least to modern eyes, give it a storybook appearance. Gothic costume, for example, shared a number of characteristics with Gothic architecture. Men's pointed shoes and women's steepled headdresses suggested the peaks and spires of Gothic castles and cathedrals. The crenellation of sleeves and hoods echoed the crenellation of castle walls. The rich colors and textures of velvets and brocades, as well as the jewel-studded girdles and pendants in vogue, re-created the brilliance of stained glass and illuminated manuscripts. Led by the elegant courts of Burgundy, Paris, and Flanders, the fashion-conscious of the Continent lent themselves to frequent changes in style. By 1400 the houppelande had appeared; it was worn by both men and women as an outer garment (over a man's doublet and over a woman's tunic, or kirtle). Buttoned from collar to hem, the houppelande had sleeves and a high-standing collar. The wide sleeves were often scalloped at the cuffs. Men's hose, fully exposed under the houppelande, ended in leather shoes that were extremely pointed at the toes. Wooden patterns, or clogs, supporting the shoes were donned for outdoor wear. Around 1400 tiny bells were added to belts and hoods. Men wore hoods with long trailing ends, called liripipes. These hoods could be drawn up and padded to create a turbanlike headgear, with the scalloped edges forming a cockscomb. By 1450 tall felt hats were adopted. Women's headdresses were even more extravagant. Around 1350, women wore their hair coiled on either side of the face and fitted into metal baskets. By the end of the century the fashion was to draw the coiled hair up with rolled pads, to create a bicorne that supported a veil. About 1420 a steeple hat, or henin, was worn, with the veil wound around it and left trailing. Women's hair was hidden under these elaborate dressings. Women completed their toilette by plucking their eyebrows and painting their cheeks with rouge. THE RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE ERAS The Italian Renaissance: 1420-1520 Costume in Italy followed the international Gothic style of northern Europe until the mid-15th century. Dress then assumed a more natural appearance. The robe appeared, which was actually a dress with attached bodice and skirt. Men's doublets grew shorter and hose received greater emphasis. The fashion for peaked Gothic headdresses among women declined and hair reappeared, now elaborately trimmed with thin veils, ribbons, and jewels. The use of lace and perfume also became more common during the Renaissance. Clothing from 1520 to 1700 created an impression of mass and bulk. The costume was appropriate for people who saw themselves as indomitable. Henry VIII and Elizabeth I of England, Holy Roman emperors Maximilian I and Charles V, King Louis XIV of France--all were monarchs who were totally in command, and this was reflected unequivocally in their apparel. The Later Renaissance By 1490 Gothic dress in northern Europe had given way to the simpler styles of Renaissance Italy. Soon, however, unusual things happened to fashion that reflected \TMannerism\t in art (1520-1600). The slashing of clothes, for instance, began as a reaction to \Tsumptuary laws\t that decreed that commoners should wear clothing of only one color. To circumvent the law, men (and soon women as well) cut open the outer surfaces of their garments--doublets, sleeves, and hose--in this way exposing a contrasting color beneath. This lining could then be pulled through the slashing and puffed out to further emphasize the contrast. At first these slashings consisted of small, intricate patterns, but from 1600 to about 1650, slashings were longer and vertical in shape. Women's Gothic headdress was replaced before 1500 by a simple hood. This hood then became peaked, not unlike a playing card queen, which corresponded to the late Gothic or Tudor arch. Men's hats were broad, and some were trimmed with gems. Women's robes were expanding below the waistline; by 1550 hoops made of wire or wicker, held together with ribbons and tapes, were used for support. This was the beginning of a recurring fashion phenomenon. The hoopskirt, or farthingale, reached its maximum width around 1600, when it assumed a cartwheel or drum-shaped appearance. Combined with ballooned sleeves and expanded ruffs or circular lace collars, it made a woman appear formidable or even unapproachable. With puffed-out trunk hose, balloon sleeves, padded doublets, and the same large ruff collars, men achieved a similar appearance. Baroque Fashions The farthingale disappeared during the baroque 17th century. Except in Spain, it was gone by 1620, although skirts remained bell-shaped. The millstone ruff also vanished, to be replaced among both men and women by a wide lace collar that sloped over the shoulders. The Cavalier look resulted from the \TEnglish Civil War\t and, on the Continent, the \TThirty Years' War\t. With its broad-topped boots, slashed doublets, and wide-brimmed hats, it dominated men's attire until 1660. A new elegance followed that reflected the magnificence of Louis XIV's court at Versailles and, in England, the restoration of the monarchy after 10 years of Puritan rule. Men's jackets became longer and were trimmed with lace at the sleeves. A lace shirt might protrude below the jacket to give an elongated appearance. High-heeled shoes replaced boots, and men took to wearing cascading shoulder-length wigs. Both men and women wore the high-crowned Puritan hat until 1660, when women's bonnets appeared. Women wore their hair naturally, no longer than to the shoulder, and covered it with a kerchief. Waists were narrow and skirts bell-shaped. Sleeves, although wide, tended to be three-quarter length. The outer gown was pulled back from the skirt front and, by 1680, formed a bustle, another fashion phenomenon that would emerge again toward the end of the next two centuries. By 1680 women's height was accentuated by the fontage, a headdress of ribbon and lace that mounted to a height of a foot or more. Lace and ribbons were freely used and, except among the Puritans, colors were bright for both men and women. THE 18TH CENTURY Both dress and manners became comparatively relaxed in Europe during the 18th century. The stiff, almost architectural style of Louis XIV gave way to a rococo lightness. Although the hoopskirt reappeared, the period as a whole was conservative, classic in proportion and taste, as befitted an age of reason and enlightenment. Colors and textures were never too bold and trimmings not excessive until the advent of the "macaroni" styles in the 1770s. The immense wigs worn by men in the years immediately preceding 1720 gave way to natural-sized powdered wigs. Typical attire for men included knee breeches, jackets with embroidered vests, and shirts decorated with a throat cloth, or cravat, the ancestor of the modern necktie. The hat for men throughout the century was the tricorn, a low crowned hat with the brim turned up on three sides. By 1790 two other hats were common: a bicorn and a top hat similar to the 17th-century Puritan hat. About 1730 hoops, known as panniers (or baskets), began to expand women's skirts laterally. By the 1750s this side expansion had reached its extreme width, only to subside a few years later. Except for formal dress, skirts were not always floor length. Silk stockings and shoes with medium high heels adorned the legs and feet. Extreme artificiality reappeared in the 1770s in the shape of women's powdered pompadour hairdos, which, rising to heights of more than a foot, were festooned with ribbons and flowers and sometimes even trimmed with miniature ships in full sail. This heightened hairstyle was succeeded in the next decade by a fuller, rounded hairdo topped by an enormous hat or a lace cap. A pouter pigeon silhouette was created by a bustle pad, in back of the skirt, and by a kerchief worn over the bodice in front. THE 19TH CENTURY The French Revolution (1789-94) brought profound changes in fashion that lasted well into the 19th century, mainly in the direction of greater simplicity. Because traditional aristocratic attire was suspect, the French upper classes turned in self-protection to the wearing of peasant costume or English country dress. Under the influence of Jean Jacques \TRousseau\t's back-to-nature movement, \TMarie Antoinette\t had already given a certain cachet to the wearing of "milkmaid" dress during the last years of the ancient regime. The revolutionaries' ideological preference for what they took to be the substance and form of classical antiquity also accounted for the new styles adopted under the \TDirectory\t (1795-99): in women's clothes, a neoclassic look based on a high-waisted "Grecian" dress that flowed simply from the bustline remained in fashion through the Napoleonic era until 1820. The simplicity and scantiness of this garb would not be seen again until the 1920s. Men's clothing was subject to an equally dramatic change. The baggy trousers worn by the radical republican sansculottes early in the revolution proved only a prelude to the substitution of straight-hanging trousers for knee breeches among gentlemen by the turn of the century. This was an irreversible stylistic revolution, the only exceptions thereafter being jodhpurs for riding and the knickerbockers worn by men on the golf range and by American schoolboys before World War II. Simplicity was the dominant motif. Court dress gave way to less formal attire. Country dress, consisting of riding hat, jacket, and boots, became urbanized by 1800. Overcoats were also introduced. The top hat, once worn for protection by horseback riders, had become regulation street wear by 1820; by 1900, it constituted formal attire. The formal tailcoat of 1900 was also derived from what was street wear in 1820 and sportswear in 1780. By 1860 men were wearing suits not unlike those worn by businessmen today. These replaced the frock coat and cutaway, which then became daytime formal attire. Cravats became smaller, developing into ascots, bow ties, and four-in-hand ties by 1900. Collars, which in 1800 rose to the chin, were gradually lowered and reduced in size. Romantic influences, often inspired by a cult of the medieval, began to appear in the details of women's clothing after 1820. The waistline also reemerged in its anatomically appropriate place, the Grecian gown giving way to a bell-shaped skirt, which became progressively more voluminous with each decade until, by the 1850s, hoops or crinolines were once again in use to support its girth. By 1870 the crinoline had been replaced by a bustle, a stylistic flourish that pervaded women's fashions until 1890. Women's hats during the same period evolved from the large bonnet popular during the 1820s to the feather- and ribbon-trimmed hats of the 1870s and later. The silhouette presented by the 1890s woman would have shown a bell-shaped skirt, tight-corseted waist, and balloon sleeves. THE 20TH CENTURY By 1910 this silhouette was considerably attenuated, with the feminine ensemble completed by an enormous hat. Hobbled skirts and small turbans, introduced in 1910 by French couturier Paul \TPoiret\t, put an end both to Edwardian elegance and to the relative comfort afford by the Gibson Girl outfit. It was in this confining costume that the suffragists of England and America staged their first mass demonstrations for women's rights. The postwar period brought the long-waisted, bare-kneed look of the flappers. The short tubular dresses of 1925 and the simplicity of Coco \TChanel\t's fashions ended the most restrictive features of female dress, namely, the excessive corseting that had characterized past fashions and the prohibition against revealing legs. The economics of the fashion industry might thereafter decree change for the sake of change, but women, except for their high-heeled shoes, never again submitted to the physical mutilations and limitations imposed by entirely artificial shapes. Skirts in the 20th century seemed to rise and fall according to the rhythm of the stock market. When Wall Street boomed, as it did in the 1920s (and would again in the 1960s), skirt lengths rose above the knee (and, 40 years later, even to the thigh); with the crash of 1929, skirts plummeted, only to rise again during America's World War II prosperity. The long skirts of the 1930s were accompanied by puffed sleeves, and a variety of hats replaced the cloche of the 1920s. Christian \TDior\t's "New Look" of 1947 took the wartime padding out of shoulders and once again lowered the hemline; nevertheless, skirts crept steadily upward during the next 20 years, culminating in the daring miniskirt of the mid-1960s. A combination of the youth revolution and the feminist movement succeeded in the mid-1960s to early '70s in temporarily freeing women from the dictates of fashion. Although short skirts eventually bowed to the more conservative outlook that succeeded the mid-1960s, trouser-clad women seemed a permanent legacy of the cultural upheavals. Hats and gloves, at least in the United States, were jettisoned like so much flotsam. Men's fashions during the 20th century, although not subject to such drastic ups and downs as women's, nevertheless reflected a steady trend toward the more casual and comfortable. The stiff collars in favor from 1880 to 1920, for instance, became steadily softer and more natural. The hat, once an essential of every well-groomed wardrobe, had virtually disappeared in the United States by 1960. Ties and trouser legs might widen or narrow, cuffs might come and go, but essentially men's clothing remained loose. The most revolutionary fashion changes for men came as a direct result of the hippie, sexual, and political revolutions of the late 1960s: these included a turn toward more androgynous, or unisex, clothing, a male counterpart of women's appropriation of men's trousers; and, much more ubiquitous, a return to the long or longish hair, beards, and moustaches in favor throughout much of the 19th century. E. M. 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