Public education in the United States takes place in more than 83,000 elementary and secondary schools (see \Tprimary education\t; \Tmiddle schools and junior high schools\t; \Tsecondary education\t), on which over $170 billion a year is spent. More than 3,500 private and public colleges, \Tcommunity and junior colleges\t, and \Luniversit\lies exist (including \Tgraduate education\t), on which more than $80 billion a year is spent. In addition, \Tprivate schools\t, \Tpreschool education\t \Lprogram\ls, \Tadult education\t programs, federal \TIndian schools\t, and schools on federal installations abroad are components of the U.S. educational system. Almost 88% of the regular day-school students and almost 78% of the students in higher education are enrolled in public institutions. BASIC STATISTICS Enrollment Although enrollments were low early in the 20th century, by the 1980s almost all 5- to 13-year-olds and more than 90% of the 5- to 17-year-olds were enrolled in school. The proportion of 17-year-olds with high school diplomas increased from 7% in 1901 to 74% in 1981; another 10% earn diplomas by the time they are 29 years of age. The educational attainment of 76% of all persons over 25 years of age includes four years of high school or more. Between 1971 and 1984, public school enrollment dropped by 7 million students, or almost 15%. A gradual climb in elementary school enrollments that began in 1985 is expected to continue for the remainder of the century. Significant changes in school enrollments are also resulting from regional differences in population growth. The areas of major growth include southern and western states; the areas of decline or stable growth include urbanized northeastern and central states. In all regions, however, enrollments in large cities are declining more rapidly than the national average. Despite these changes, urban systems remain large and unwieldy. More than one-third of the elementary and secondary students in Arizona are in Phoenix, and the New York City school system, with almost a million students, is larger than that of every state west of the Mississippi except California and Texas. Population shifts from these urban schools are resulting in an increasing proportion of low-income racial and ethnic minority students. Costs Public-school costs in 1987-88 were $172 billion, of which 6% came from federal sources, 50% from state sources, and 44% from local sources. Until the 1970s more than 50% came from local sources. The 1987-88 expenditures per pupil amounted to about $4,200, ranging from lows of $2,454 (Utah) and $2,548 (Mississippi) to $7,151 (New York) and $7,971 (Alaska). Dramatic variation occurs among districts within a state, tending to reflect local wealth. LOCAL AUTHORITY School Districts The United States has about 5,300 public school districts, a number that is dropping as small districts merge. More than 50% of the districts enroll fewer than 1,000 students. Elementary districts, which may also include junior high or middle schools, and high school districts are often distinct, and neither necessarily conforms to political boundaries. History of Powers and Responsibilities American public education began in the late 18th century as a local endeavor, with citizens taking the initiative to clear land, build schools, hire teachers, raise funds, and determine who would supervise the operation. This early tradition explains the long-standing American conviction that public schools are primarily the responsibility of the communities they serve. During the late 19th century the emphasis of schools at the postprimary level shifted from a common basic learning for all students to a differentiated curriculum to prepare young people for varied social roles. From about the 1860s on, professionally trained teachers and administrators were common. At this time, schools became increasingly secular. By the 1920s the responsibility for supervision had largely been assumed by professional staff, and the size of school boards was reduced. Compulsory attendance laws became widespread before the 1920s. Now school board powers include hiring and reviewing the performance of the superintendent, setting policy guidelines, and approving administrative actions and recommendations. Some districts have the power to levy taxes within state-imposed limits. In these instances school boards tend to be involved in budget making and district finances. The extent of board involvement varies with the interests of their members. In some large districts local advisory councils, with no formal authority, have on occasion influenced the selection of teachers, principals, and textbooks. Their involvement also depends on the interests of their members. STATE AUTHORITY Primary Authority Formal control of American public schools is held by state government. The powers of local school boards are, in all states, derived from state powers by the delegation of state governments. In general, states reserve powers to legislate and enforce policy guidelines, academic standards, and accreditation review procedures. State legislation determines the system of school finance, criteria for licensing school personnel, and the ages of compulsory attendance. State agencies are responsible for curriculum review, quality control, and general supervision of the educational institutions. States cannot bar private education but can exercise indirect control over private institutions through \Tcurriculum\t requirements, \Taccreditation\t standards, and criteria for the licensing of professional staff. History of Powers and Responsibilities State influence on education was encouraged by the common-school movement (from about 1830 to 1860), an educational campaign particularly strong in the northern and Midwestern states. Advocates of common schools sought to establish more schools and to organize systems of comparable schools within the states. The effort focused on elementary education, but growing support for public high schools was being generated as well. Horace \TMann\t, perhaps the major leader in the movement, argued that common schools would be the "new enabling institutions" that would produce the quality of citizens needed to guarantee national survival through industrialization and urban growth. They would, it was thought, educate voters for civic responsibility, Americanize recent immigrants, and teach young people to avoid vice and crime. To realize such goals, it was argued, schools must be inclusive, comparable, and accessible. They could not be left to local whim. By 1861 most Union states had active state school offices, and by 1900 about half of the states had them. At first they merely collected data, recommended improvements, and inspected and compared schools. The wider powers already mentioned developed in the 20th century. FEDERAL INTERVENTION History of Powers and Responsibilities The U.S. Constitution does not explicitly mention education. Until after the Civil War both houses of Congress refused to establish standing committees on education on the grounds that the subject fell within state prerogatives. Nevertheless, new states were required to reserve land for the support of schools, and in the late 1830s surplus federal funds were returned to states to be used for a number of purposes, including education. It was at this time that the common-school movement grew. Education programs for Indian tribes began before 1820. When the Department of Agriculture was established (1862), educational services constituted one of its major assignments. Among the services offered by the \TFreedmen\t's BUREAU (1865) after the Civil War were educational services. A U.S. Department of Education was approved in 1867 but later was reorganized as a bureau in the Department of the Interior, where it played only a minor role for almost a century. The major federal educational enactment of the 19th century was the \TMorrill Act\t, enacted in 1862. It offered land grants to the states for endowing and maintaining at least one college that would promote scientific, agricultural, industrial, and military studies and agricultural experimentation. A second act (1890) provided continuing federal support for \Tland-grant colleges\t. These annual appropriations were to be withheld from states practicing segregation unless separate agricultural and mechanical \Tblack colleges\t were provided. The law led to the creation of 17 land-grant institutions for blacks. Among the land-grant colleges are such distinguished institutions as Cornell and Rutgers universities, the Michigan State University, the University of Illinois, and Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University. In the first half of the 20th century, Congress approved aid for \Tvocational education\t, education-related public works during the Depression, veterans education, and school districts "impacted" by the children of federal employees. (See G.I. \TBill of Rights\t.) Developments in 1958 and Following The \TNational Defense Education Act\t (NDEA) of 1958 approved the use of federal funds to support science and mathematics education and modern foreign-language instruction. Funds from the NDEA were employed to strengthen secondary-school and college programs and to underwrite low-interest loans to students in higher education. The \TElementary and Secondary Education Act of\t 1965 (\TESEA\t) represented the most direct federal intervention in education in U.S. history. In making funds available to local and state education agencies offering programs for economically and educationally disadvantaged children, \TESEA\t committed the federal government to enhancing equal educational opportunity. Major infusions of federal funds to support education followed throughout the 1960s. By 1978 the cost of federal education programs exceeded $25 billion. The Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981 altered the mode of distributing a large portion of federal education funds by consolidating 42 programs into 7 programs fundable through block grants to the states. Federal intervention has neither augmented local and state operating budgets nor exercised direct control of education. Rather, it has been problem focused, targeted for particular populations, and limited in duration. Although many programs exist scattered among about 40 agencies, the principal agency is the U.S. Department of Education. Supreme Court Decisions During the 1960s, '70s, and '80s the U.S. Supreme Court established major precedents in the areas of student rights, school finance, and access to education. Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969) upheld the constitutional rights to freedom of speech and expression of public-school students and teachers. The ruling has been applied to decisions involving underground newspapers, demonstrations, and refusal to participate in patriotic exercises. Goss v. Lopez (1975) guaranteed due process to students in cases involving suspension and expulsion from school. In Ingraham v. Wright (1977) the Supreme Court concluded that corporal punishment is not prohibited by the constitutional prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1973) held that school finance reform is a matter to be resolved by state lawmakers and not a constitutional issue. Mueller et al. v. Allen et al. (1983) upheld a Minnesota law allowing tax deductions for the costs of public and private education. \TBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas\t (1954) barred the de jure segregation of students by race, ruling that separate schools were inherently unequal. It was the first of a series of decisions directly promoting school desegregation. \TUniversity of California v. Bakke\t (1978) approved admissions policies that seek to promote the inclusion of certain groups but barred the use of group quotas. CURRENT ISSUES Among the issues facing American education are the declining enrollment--which will require the curtailing of programs, the abandonment of facilities, and reductions in the staff--and the question of whether there should be bilingual education and, if so, in what form. Both issues will be intensified by changes in the nation's demography. The school-age population represents a decreasing proportion of the total population. Fewer taxpayers directly concerned as parents with the quality of schools may result in further reductions in educational spending. Absolute and proportional increases in the Spanish-speaking population affect the controversy over \Tbilingual education\t. Parental choice in education and other major issues will be faced in the 1990s. Student Achievement Recent studies have indicated significant declines in student achievement in reading, mathematics, science, and social studies. Hope exists, however, that the scores have "bottomed out." Students in inner-city schools, especially those from low-income and minority-group families, generally test lower than their suburban, middle-class counterparts. In the 1980s several critical reports recommended sweeping curriculum and policy changes to raise student achievement, including a longer school day and academic year, additional high school graduation requirements in the sciences and mathematics, competency testing in basic areas of study, and higher admissions requirements for colleges and universities. The lack of fresh resources will require the reallocation of existing funds to support the new emphasis on measured achievement. Teacher Shortages and Merit Pay The lack of qualified teachers, especially in science and mathematics, will be a major concern throughout the 1990s. The problem has resulted from a combination of factors. Women, historically the major source of school personnel, are moving into different professions. Relative to others with similar levels of educational preparation, teachers are underpaid. Recent studies indicate strong dissatisfaction among teachers with their working conditions. As a consequence, the number and quality of teacher candidates have fallen. Merit pay for teachers and creation of a new career path for outstanding teachers, the master teacher, have been proposed as ways to attract more able people into the profession. The proposals offer long-term incentives, but teacher organizations fear that the proposals would supplant efforts to correct the salary inequities of teachers generally. Donald Warren Reviewed by Eric R. Ebeling Bibliography: Bennett, William J., Our Country and Our Children: Improving America's Schools (1988); Boyer, Ernest, High School (1983); Burke, Fred G., Public Education: Who's in Charge? (1990); Chubb, John E., and Moe, Terry M., What Price Democracy? Politics, Markets, and America's Schools (1990); Frye, Northrop, On Education (1988); Glazer, Nathan, ed., The Public Interest on Education (1984); Goodlad, John I., A Place Called School (1983); Hirsch, E.D., Jr., Cultural Literacy (1988); Nelson, Jack, et al., Critical Issues in Education (1989); Oakes, Jeannie, and Lipton, Martin, Making the Best of Schools: A Handbook for Parents, Teachers, and Policymakers (1990); Wagner, Robert F., Jr., New York Ascendant: The Report of the Committee on the Year 2000 (1988).