Quebec is the largest of the Canadian provinces, with an area of 1,540,680 sq km (594,860 sq mi). It stretches from the U.S. border and the Gulf of St. Lawrence north to Hudson Strait and from Hudson Bay east to Labrador and the Atlantic coast. It is bounded on the west and southwest by the province of Ontario. Quebec is nicknamed la belle province ("the beautiful province") because of its variety of lakes, forests, and open country, its commercial centers, and its French culture. Quebec was first settled in 1608 by the French. Today 80% of the province's population is French-speaking; it is the only such province in Canada. The demand for greater provincial autonomy has increased, and since the 1960s more political, economic, and social controls have passed from federal to provincial jurisdiction. Some Quebecers advocate complete independence from Canada, but the separatist movement was for a time weakened by the defeat of a proposal for sovereignty in a 1980 referendum. Quebec nevertheless remained a major focus of the Canadian debate on federal-provincial relations. The Meech Lake accord, which would have given Quebec the status of a "distinct society" within the Canadian federation, lapsed when the required 10 provinces failed to ratify the agreement by June 23, 1990. Many in Quebec reacted with shock and displeasure, and the forces of separatism were appreciably strengthened. LAND AND RESOURCES More than 80% of the entire province is made up of the \TCanadian Shield\t, a vast, lake-studded plateau extending from the far north to the \TLaurentian Mountains\t in the south and sloping westward to Hudson Bay. Deep valleys dissect the plateau edge. An extension of the \TAppalachian Mountains\t, including the Shickshock Mountains, reaches from the east coast of the United States to the \TGaspe\t Peninsula of southeastern Quebec. In a fault zone between the Canadian Shield and the Appalachians lie the St. Lawrence lowlands formed by the St. Lawrence River. Near Montreal this lowland region is punctuated by the Monteregians, a line of isolated hills. Soils In the warmer southern part of the shield, podzol soils have developed, whereas in the colder north immature tundra soils are underlain by permanently frozen ground called permafrost. Bog soils are extensive around James Bay. The Appalachians have shallow, brown podzols, and the St. Lawrence lowlands have gray brown podzols, the best agricultural soils in the province. Climate Temperatures range from a January average of -9 deg C (16 deg F) at Montreal to -25 deg C (-13 deg F) at Inoucdjouac (formerly Port Harrison) in the Arctic zone. July temperatures average 22 deg C (71 deg F) at Montreal and 11 deg C (52 deg F) at Port Hamson. Precipitation ranges from an annual average of about 1,000 mm (40 in) at Montreal to 356 mm (14 in) in the Arctic; at least one-third of the precipitation is snow. Rivers and Lakes Quebec contains approximately 183,400 sq km (71,000 sq mi) of fresh water. Of the two major drainage systems, one flows eastward to the Atlantic by way of the \TSt. Lawrence River\t, and another drains north and westward to Hudson and James bays. The major lakes include Mistassini Reservoir, Gouin Reservoir, Manicouagan Reservoir, Eau Claire, Bienville, and Saint Jean. Vegetation and Animal Life Low shrubs and lichens dominate the tundra in the north. The subarctic climate of the central and southern shield supports coniferous forests. Hardwoods predominate in the St. Lawrence lowlands. A mixture of hardwoods and fir, spruce, and pine cover the Appalachians. Wildlife is varied: polar bear, seal, arctic fox, and hare in the far north; wolf, black bear, caribou, deer, and moose in the coniferous forests. Partridge, ducks, and geese and trout, pike, pickerel, bass, and salmon attract sports enthusiasts. Resources Mineral resources form the basis of much of Quebec's economy: iron ore, gold, copper, and zinc from the Canadian Shield; asbestos and copper from the Appalachians; and limestone from the Montreal plain. Quebec imports all of its petroleum, gas, and coal, but many of its rivers have been harnessed for water power. Productive forests cover one-third of Quebec. Increased public awareness of environmental problems has led to legislation to further regulate mining and forest exploitation and to reduce water and air pollution. PEOPLE The population of Quebec is distributed unevenly. Although much of the total area is unsettled, nearly 80% of the population are urban and are concentrated in the southwest. Approximately 45% of the population live in the \TMontreal\t census metropolitan area. Other major cities are \TTrois-Rivieres\t, Quebec City, Chicoutimi, and Sherbrooke. About 45,000 Indians and Eskimo (Inuit) live in widely scattered fishing and hunting villages. Quebec's population increased by 1.6% during the period 1981-86. The birthrate, once the highest in Canada, has dropped to one of the lowest, 13 per 1,000 (1985). The population is 82% French-speaking and 11% English-speaking. Roman Catholics account for 87% of the population; 7% are Protestant, 2% are Jewish, and 4% practice other religions. Education and Cultural Activity Education was originally the responsibility of the Roman Catholic church. After the British conquest (1759) and Confederation (1867), two parallel but independent systems of education evolved: French Catholic and English Protestant, reflecting the dual nature of the population. The Ministry of Education was established (1964) to provide more uniform standards for the whole province. The province's seven universities include \TMcGill University\t (English language), \TLaval University\t and the University of \TQuebec\t (both French language), and the University of Montreal. The many small regional museums, art and music centers, and performing groups play as important a cultural role as those in the major cities. The latter include the Montreal and Quebec symphony orchestras; the Quebec opera; the Museum of Fine Arts, the Place des Arts (Concert Hall), and the National Library, all in Montreal; and, in Quebec City, the National Archives and Museum of Quebec. The province has 20 permanent theatrical or dance groups and a major film agency for creative documentary and feature films. Historic Sites and Recreation Among the preserved historic sites in Quebec City are the Plains of Abraham battlefield, where the English under James \TWolfe\t defeated the French under the marquis de \TMontcalm\t; the fortified French city; and several Catholic churches, including Notre Dame (1688), and seminaries. In the Montreal area are the Saint Sulpice Seminary (built 1865); the old Lachine canals; Notre Dame Church (begun 1820); and restored fur-trading posts. Federal and provincial parks offer year-round outdoor recreational opportunities and attract several million visitors annually. Quebec City's winter carnival (in February before Lent) and Montreal's Expo '67 World's Fair site are popular attractions. Professional hockey, baseball, and football teams from Montreal compete in North American leagues. Communications Numerous radio and television stations broadcast in Quebec, the majority of them in French. Montreal has English- and French-language daily newspapers. Le Journal de Montreal has the largest daily circulation in the province. Quebec City's major daily newspapers are in the French language. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Fur trading and fishing were early economic endeavors in Quebec, and by 1860, the province also had an adequately developing manufacturing sector. Mining began to develop in the early 20th century. Today, the services sector contributes the greatest part of Quebec's gross domestic product. Forestry and Mining Forest products--wood pulp, paper (especially newsprint), lumber, and plywood--are also important to the economy. More than 40% of Canada's pulp and paper come from Quebec. Quebec's greatest source of mining income is from iron-ore production, followed by gold. The province has about 40% of Canada's iron-ore reserves and nearly a quarter of the gold reserves. Other valuable metals are copper and zinc. Quebec also provides about 90% of Canada's asbestos. Many ores are exported with little processing, mainly to the United States. Manufacturing and Energy Quebec ranks second among Canadian provinces in the value of manufacturing shipments. The province's mineral wealth is the basis for much smelting and refining and for heavy manufacturing of automobiles, aircraft, and machinery. Food and beverages processing is the leading industry in Quebec. Industries based on timber and pulp are also of major importance, with most pulp and paper mills located in the cities of the St. Maurice River Valley. Brass and copper products, electrical machinery and equipment, chemicals, and petroleum products are also valuable. Textiles and apparel are still significant but are suffering from foreign competition. Major energy sources in Quebec are petroleum, coal natural gas, and hydropower. The province is a leading producer of hydroelectric power in North America, and because of its abundant water resources, the hydropower produced in Quebec is cheaper than in most other regions of the continent. Since 1963, Quebec's hydroelectric plants have been under the control of the provincial government. Major hydroelectric plants are located near James Bay and on the Bersimis, La Grande, Manicouagan, Outardes, St. Lawrence, and St. Maurice rivers. Quebec also has nuclear power resources. Agriculture and Fishing Dairy farming is Quebec's predominant agricultural activity. Principal field crops are fodder, corn, mixed grains, barley, oats, tobacco, and wheat. Potatoes are the major vegetable grown in Quebec, an apples are the province's most important fruit. Quebec is also the world's foremost producer of maple sugar and syrup. The Gulf of St. Lawrence and the estuary of the St. Lawrence River are the centers of the fishing industry. Cod, snow crab and perch provide about 75% of the the fish catch. Tourism and Transportation Because of the beauty of the natural landscape and the unique French history and culture, Quebec has a thriving tourist industry, supported by thousands of kilometers of roads and operating rail tracks. Main routes connect Ontario, Quebec City, New Brunswick, and New York. Montreal, one of the hubs of the Canadian and U.S. transportation network, has two international airports and serves as an ocean and inland port. GOVERNMENT Constitutional government is based on the \TBritish North America Act\t (1867), which at Confederation in 1867 divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. Quebec retained, as well, many of the administrative and civil judiciary traditions of the old French regime. The province exercises more control and seeks more autonomy than most other provinces over many socioeconomic and cultural affairs. The parliamentary system provides, by universal suffrage from age 18, an elected provincial assembly consisting of 125 members. A federally appointed lieutenant governor has no real powers; most power rests with the premier, the leader of the majority provincial party. The Court of Appeals is Quebec's highest court. It and the Superior Court are made up of federally appointed judges. HISTORY The territory around the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the lands drained by the St. Lawrence River were claimed by Jacques \TCartier\t for France after his expeditions in 1534 to the Gaspe Peninsula and in 1535 to present-day Montreal. He encountered native Algonquian peoples and Eskimo. European settlement followed with the establishment of the first habitation in 1608 by Samuel de \TChamplain\t at Quebec City. The colony of \TNew France\t grew slowly. Encouraged by King Louis XIV of France, and welcomed by such administrators as Jean \TTalon\t and the comte de \TFrontenac\t (governor from 1672 to 1682), more than 10,000 immigrants arrived in the 150 years of the French regime, 7,000 of whom stayed. They cleared the land, established schools, churches, and industries, explored westward, and extended the fur trade. A modified feudal system developed for the colony's administration in which the Roman Catholic church played a major role. By about 1750 the population, aided by a high birthrate, had reached 65,000. British-French rivalries in Europe led to conflicts over hegemony in America, resulting in the \TFrench and Indian Wars\t. In 1759 the British general James Wolfe captured Quebec City, ending the hostilities. In the 1763 Treaty of Paris (see \TParis, treaties of\t) France ceded all of New France to Britain. Contact with and further immigration from France ceased. New colonists arrived from Britain, and, after the American Declaration of Independence in 1776, Loyalists from America arrived and settled in the foothills of the Laurentians and the Appalachians, in the Maritimes, and in the new area of Upper Canada (Ontario). Through the \TQuebec Act\t of 1774, the Constitutional Act of 1791, and the British North America Act of 1867 (when Quebec joined Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick to form the Confederation of Canada), the French-speaking inhabitants were allowed to retain their language and religious and civil administrative systems. The French remained dominant in agriculture, and they continued to outnumber English-speakers. In the early 1800s the English-speaking inhabitants had begun to develop lumber, paper, mining, textile, and other industries and to establish commercial, financial, and trading companies, many centered in Montreal, which grew rapidly. Thus the English controlled the economic structures of the province, although the French, who formed 80% of the population, dominated the political scene. French Quebecers resented their position, and Louis \TPapineau\t led (1837) an unsuccessful revolt (see \TRebellions of\t 1837). Industrialization and urbanization, accelerated by World War I, continued, and by 1921, 56% of Quebec's population lived in urban areas. As Canada expanded westward and northward, and as world economic structures and trading patterns evolved, more of the economic control of Quebec passed out of the province to Ontario, Great Britain, and the United States, especially that over the mineral and forest resources. Provincial rights and autonomy became stronger political objectives. World War II hastened the modernization process and the questioning of traditional patterns, including the role of the church in society and government. Successive Quebec governments enacted legislation to achieve greater provincial control of socioeconomic policies. Most sought to do this within the existing Canadian Confederation, but they encountered rising sentiment in favor of the complete independence of Quebec from the rest of Canada. In 1976 the Parti Quebecois, led by Rene \TLevesque\t, which advocated the formation of a separate sovereign state, was elected. In 1980, Quebec voters soundly defeated a referendum proposal that would have mandated federal-provincial negotiations of terms of sovereignty. Levesque resigned as party leader and premier in 1985, and his party subsequently lost the provincial election to the Liberal party. The separatist issue, officially ended in 1987 after Quebec officials signed the 1982 \TConstitution Act\t, was renewed in 1990 when the agreed-upon amendments failed to gain ratification. Another area of conflict between Quebec and the rest of Canada concerned language laws--most recently, a 1988 law proclaiming the exclusive use of French on outdoor signs that was passed after Canada's Supreme Court struck down earlier similar legislation. R. \TNorman\t \TDrummond\t Bibliography: Coleman, William D., The Independence Movement in Quebec: 1945-1980 (1984); Dion, Leon, Quebec: The Unfinished Revolution, rev. ed. (1976); Fitzmaurice, John, Quebec and Canada: Past, Present, and Future (1985); Handler, Richard, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec (1988); Neatby, Hilda M., Quebec: The Revolutionary Age, 1760-1791 (1966); Nish, C. C., ed., Quebec in the Duplessis Era, 1935-1959 (1970); Stanley, G. F., New France: The Last Phase, 1744-1760 (1968); Trudel, Marcel, The Beginning of New France (1972); Wade, Mason, The French Canadians, 1760-1967, 2 vols. (1968).