{muh-rah'-koh} The Kingdom of Morocco (Arabic: Al Maghrib) is located in northwestern Africa. Bounded by water on two sides, it fronts the Atlantic Ocean for 1,465 km (910 mi) on the west and the Mediterranean Sea for 370 km (230 mi) on the north. The 13-km-wide (8-mi) Strait of Gibraltar connecting the Atlantic and the Mediterranean separates Morocco from Europe to the north. Morocco's eastern and southern neighbor is Algeria. In the far southwest, Morocco adjoins the disputed territory of \TWestern Sahara\t, a former Spanish possession. Morocco claims the region and is at war with the Polisario Front, a guerrilla group fighting for Western Saharan independence. Morocco became a Muslim country with the Arab conquest in the 7th century. Between the 11th and 13th centuries Moroccan dynasties of Almoravids and Almohads ruled both northwestern Africa and Spain. Maintaining independence longer than any of its neighbors, Morocco never came under the control of the Ottoman Empire and was a French, and then Spanish, protectorate for only 44 years (1912-56). The country regained independence on Mar. 2, 1956. A nation with a predominantly agricultural economy, Morocco was then faced with the challenge of providing for a population that by 1979 had more than doubled since independence. LAND AND RESOURCES In the west a coastal plain from 30 to 50 km (20 to 30 mi) wide stretches along the Atlantic coast. The Mediterranean coast in the north is rimmed by the \TRif\t, a mountain range reaching 2,457 m (8,060 ft) at Tidiguin Peak. Most of Morocco's interior is composed of mountains and plateaus. The major mountain system, the \TAtlas Mountains\t, consists of three parallel ranges situated in the center of the country and extending for about 2,400 km (1,500 mi). The Anti-Atlas in the southwest gives way to the High Atlas, where Jebel Toubkal, the nation's highest peak, rises to 4,165 m (13,665 ft); the Middle Atlas is located northeast of the High Atlas. Rolling plateaus east of the mountains gradually lead into the \TSahara\t, located in southeastern and southern Morocco. Alluvial soils predominate along the Atlantic coast, the Rharb Plain in the southwest, and the Moulouya River valley at the Mediterranean coast. Good soils are also found at the oases located in the foothills of the Atlas. Much of the Sahara in Morocco is composed of bare rock outcroppings. Climate A Mediterranean climate with warm summers and mild winters prevails in most of the northern lowlands of Morocco. Average temperatures in Rabat are 23 deg C (74 deg F) in August and 12 deg C (54 deg F) in January. By comparison, temperatures in the region between the coastal strip and the mountains have a greater range and are higher in summer and lower in winter; average temperatures in Marrakech are 29 deg C (85 deg F) in August and 11 deg C (52 deg F) in January. The Atlas ranges have cool summers and cold winters; at Chaib Tarquist, in the Middle Atlas, temperatures average 22 deg C (73 deg F) in July and 7 deg C (45 deg F) in January. Rainfall is most plentiful in the north and decreases southward. Tangier, located near the Strait of Gibraltar, receives 890 mm (35 in) annually, whereas Agadir, located along the southern Atlantic coast, receives only 230 mm (9 in). Precipitation in the Atlas Mountains averages more than 1,000 mm (40 in) annually, some of it in the form of snow. In the Sahara rainfall is unpredictable and amounts to an annual average of 100 mm (4 in). Drainage All the rivers of Morocco rise in the Atlas Mountains. The Moulouya flows north, and the Sebou, Oum er Rbia, Sous, and Tensift rivers drain westward to the Atlantic. Rivers flowing southward are seasonal; they provide water for the piedmont oases but dry up in the desert. In summer many of the country's lakes evaporate, and the exposed lake beds are used for agricultural purposes. Vegetation and Animal Life Forests of Mediterranean evergreen, cedar, and eucalyptus remain on the mountains at high altitudes. Some of the lower slopes and inland areas have been cleared of trees or are covered with scrub forests. Esparto grass grows over much of eastern Morocco. Animals include camels, mouflons, gazelles, and macaco monkeys. Resources Morocco possesses 75% of the world's known phosphate reserves (including those in Western Sahara) and has deposits of copper, rock salt, petroleum, iron ore, coal, lead, manganese, and zinc. About 12% of the total land area is forested, and cork oak is the most economically important tree. Since independence a major effort has taken place to exploit the water supply for irrigation and electricity generation. Offshore waters contain abundant fish. PEOPLE \TArabs\t constitute the majority of the population, although \TBerbers\t, the original inhabitants, constitute about one-third of the people. The Berbers, who form a larger minority in Morocco than in any other North African country, are concentrated in the mountains. Of the 80,000 foreign residents, most are French and Spanish. Arabic is the official language, but several other languages are also spoken. The three Berber dialects remain in use, particularly in mountain areas, and French is still spoken, especially in government and business. Islam is the official religion, to which almost 99% of the inhabitants adhere. About 20,000 Jews live in Morocco, and almost all the Europeans are Roman Catholic. Demography Morocco's population has increased steadily; the birthrate in the late 1980s was 36 births per 1,000 inhabitants. As a result, more than 40% of the total population are under 15 years of age. Migration from rural to urban areas has increased the percentage of urban inhabitants. The historic cities, such as the former capitals \TFez\t, \TMarrakech\t, and \TMeknes\t and the present capital, \TRabat\t, were established during the 10th and 12th centuries. \TCasablanca\t is the country's largest city and leading port. \TTangier\t was an international port city from 1925 to 1956 and became part of Morocco again after independence. Education and Health Although the adult literacy rate remains low, primary education is free and compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 13, and about 75% of them attend school. Enrollment in secondary and higher education is much lower. The Islamic University of Karouine (859) and the secular Muhammad V University (1957) are the country's major institutions of higher education. The national library, on the campus of Muhammad V University, contains an excellent collection of medieval manuscripts. Health-care facilities are being expanded, but disease such as malaria, typhoid, trachoma, tuberculosis, and gastrointestinal infections remain widespread. Cultural Activity Under the Almoravids and the Almohads the Moorish architectural style developed (see \TMoorish art and architecture\t). Moorish philosophers, including \TAverroes\t, translated the works of Aristotle and other ancient Greek writers. Two major contemporary literary figures are the novelists Ahmed Sefrioui and Driss Chribi, both of whom write in French. Daily newspapers are published in both Arabic and French. The government subsidizes a national folk-dance company that preserves traditional Berber dances. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Agriculture About half of Morocco's labor force is engaged in agriculture, which contributes about 11% of the gross national product. Commercial agriculture, including cash crops grown for export, is concentrated on the Atlantic coastal plain and in the Rharb basin. Wheat and barley, sugar beets, rice, and cotton constitute the chief crops for domestic consumption, and citrus fruits, winter vegetables, and grapes for wine are the principal export crops. Large, mechanized farms cover about one-third of the land presently available for cultivation and account for 85% of the total agricultural output. There are irrigation projects along most major rivers. Industry, Mining, and Power Morocco leads the world in production and export of phosphates. Manufacturing is concentrated around Casablanca and Rabat. Industries in addition to processing of phosphates include food processing and the manufacture of textiles, plastics, leather goods, glassware, furniture, machine tools, and electrical equipment. Manufactured goods rose from only 5% of exports in 1970 to 35% in 1986. The fishing industry has also increased in importance. Electricity consumption in 1984 was 6,671,000,000 kW h. Attempts to reduce the dependence on imported oil are being made. Foreign Trade Morocco's leading exports are phosphates and phosphate products, citrus fruits, clothing, and shellfish. Petroleum, foodstuffs, chemicals, and machinery are the major imports. Morocco has an adverse balance of trade and a large foreign debt and depends on foreign aid. Since 1976, Moroccan products have had preferred status within the European Economic Community (EEC). Tourism and salaries earned by Moroccan workers in EEC countries, principally in France, are significant sources of foreign exchange. In the 1980s the economy was adversely affected by drought, a depressed world market for phosphates, and the continuing costs of the war in Western Sahara. GOVERNMENT According to the Constitution of 1972, Morocco is a constitutional monarchy. The king holds executive power; he appoints the prime minister and cabinet and can dismiss cabinet members and disband the legislature. The reigning monarch, \THassan II\t, succeeded to the throne in 1961. Members of the unicameral legislature serve six-year terms; two-thirds of them are directly elected. Morocco proper is divided into 35 provinces, each headed by a governor appointed by the king, and 6 prefectures. There are 4 additional provinces in disputed Western Sahara. HISTORY Between 475 and 450 BC, Morocco was colonized by the Carthaginians, who named it Barbary because of the Berber inhabitants. The Romans established a province, Mauretania Tingitana, during the 1st century AD in the area between Tangier and Rabat; however, Berbers remained in possession of the land in the mountains and south of Rabat. Arab proselytizers for Islam arrived in 683. The indigenous Berber people accepted the new religion, and Arab culture and language gradually diffused throughout the land. The first dynasty to unify all of Morocco under a single government was that of the Berber \TAlmoravids\t during the 11th century. They subsequently conquered Spain, but in 1174 they were conquered by another Berber dynasty, the \TAlmohads\t. The Almohads were expelled from Spain in 1212, but they continued to rule in Morocco until the end of the 15th century. By the 15th century both the Spanish and Portuguese had begun to encroach on Moroccan territory and the Portuguese had taken the coastal cities of Agadir, Ceuta, and Tangier. Jihad (holy Islamic war) was declared against the invaders, culminating in the Battle of Alcazarquivir (1578), in which the Portuguese king \TSebastian\t was killed. Pirates from Morocco and the other \TBarbary States\t along the Mediterranean coast of North Africa continued to antagonize the European nations by raiding their ships. The present Alawite dynasty first came to power in 1666, but these sultans controlled very little of their country outside of the capital city. During the 19th century European involvement in Morocco continued. After conquering Algiers in 1830 the French turned their attention westward. In 1884, Spain claimed a protectorate along Morocco's southern coastal zone. Heightened competition among the European powers for control of North Africa culminated in the Moroccan crises of 1905 and 1911-12, in which Germany sought to isolate France diplomatically by impeding its designs in Morocco. In 1911, however, Germany recognized French rights in Morocco, and in 1912 most of the area became a French protectorate. The first French resident-general, Louis \TLyautey\t, was able to extend French control across the mountains, and in 1926, French troops finally subdued the tribal rebellion led by \TAbd el-Krim\t. With the invasion of France by Germany in 1940, Morocco remained loyal to the \TVichy Government\t until Allied forces landed in Morocco in November 1942. After World War II, Sultan \TMuhammad V\t became the symbol of the growing Moroccan independence movement when the French exiled him. He was reinstated as king after independence in 1956. In 1976, Spain ceded the northern two-thirds of Spanish Sahara (now \TWestern Sahara\t) to Morocco and the remainder to Mauritania. Algeria, and later Libya, supported the Polisario Front, a group fighting for Saharan independence. When Mauritania renounced its claim to Western Sahara in 1979, Morocco annexed the entire area, building a fortified wall around most of it and encouraging Moroccan settlement there. A prolonged drought and the costly desert war, which had broad popular support, damaged the Moroccan economy and led to opposition gains in the 1984 parliamentary elections. In 1988, two years after withdrawing from a 1984 treaty of union with Libya, Morocco restored diplomatic relations with Algeria and agreed to direct talks with the Polisario Front. A cease-fire went into effect in Western Sahara in 1990, with United Nations-supervised elections there scheduled for early 1992. Moroccan troops were included in the anti-Iraq military alliance in the \TPersian Gulf War\t in 1991. John Voll Bibliography: American University, Morocco: A Country Study (1985); Bidwell, R. L., Morocco under Colonial Rule (1973); Bookin-Weiner, J. B., and Miller, J. A., Morocco (1991); Burke, E., Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco (1976); Entelis, J. P., Culture and Counter-Culture in Moroccan Politics (1988); Mikesell, M. W., North Morocco: A Cultural Geography (1961; repr. 1985); Porch, D., The Conquest of Morocco (1983; repr. 1986).