BOOK II LIFE IN THE WEST INDIES ::::::::::::::::::::::: YOUR CAREER ON THE HIGH SEAS ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ A MERRY CREW "ON ACCOUNT" - Buccaneers and pirates are unique: they were a democratic group, governed by voting, in an age of absolute kings and imperious aristocrats. Among pirates, spoils are divided fairly and equally. The Captain gets extra shares, but only because he takes larger risks. His crew is said to sail "on account" when they are paid by shares of the loot, instead of by wages. At the Start: Each voyage means a new start for the Captain and crew. you will have one ship, recently cleaned and outfitted, some initial funds from your financial backers (about 10% of the last voyages' profit), and a core of loyal crewmen. Recruiting Crewmen is done in taverns, and sometimes from captured ships. If you sneak into town you cannot recruit in taverns (recruiting is a very public activity). Recruiting from captured ships is easiest if the capture is a pirate, or a ship with a very large crew. 'On Account': Your crew is not paid wages. Instead, at the end of the voyage, the party's profits are split. Each man will get his fair share. Until the division of ;plunder, the Quartermaster is keeping an 'account' for each man from which are deducted expenses for his clothing, penalties for crimes and misdemeanors, gambling losses, etc. The term 'sailing on account' refers to this complex process of bookkeeping. This approach is also sometimes known as "No Purchase, No Pay"! As Captain, be careful to distinguish between the entire party's wealth (displayed in Party Status) and your personal wealth (displayed in Personal Status). Certainly your crew knows the difference! During the course of a voyage, the party's wealth is the combined profit of the voyage. It is the property of all and strongly affects crew morale (see below). At the end of the voyage, when you divide up the loot, each man gets his fair share. Only then do you get your share, which appears in your Personal Status money. Morale: The attitude of the crew varies from HAPPY (the best) to PLEASED, UNHAPPY, and ANGRY (the worst). The more money the party has, the happier they are. The crew attaches little importance to captured ships, goods, and other items. Their eyes are on gold! In addition, the crew is impatient. As the months pass, they want to disband and spend their loot, or (if you don't have much loot) they start thinking about joining some other Captain. The only way to keep them happy is to keep collecting more and more gold. It's difficult to keep the crew pleased for more than a year, and almost impossible to keep them pleased for two years or longer. When the crew is unhappy or angry, they will start deserting whenever you visit port. If they are angry too long, they mutiny. This means you must fight to remain Captain. Note that it is easier to keep a small crew happy than a large crew. This is because with a small crew, each man's share is larger, making him a happier fellow! Also note that converting plundered cargo to gold helps keep morale high, especially if you sell at a town with high prices. Dividing the Plunder: When the cruise ends and you Divide up the Plunder, don't be surprised when the men disperse to enjoy their wealth. Also remember that everything is split fairly, including the ships, cannons and, cargo. As Captain, you retain only your flagship. Therefore, it's advisable to sell everything except your flagship before dividing the plunder. A fixed percentage of the party's gains go to the officers. Each officer's share is worth a bit over 2%. Therefore an apprentice Captain with two shares gains 5%, a journeyman with four gains 10%, an adventurer with six gains 15%, and a swashbuckler with eight gains 20%. Note that the size of the crew has no effect on the Captain's share. This is to discourage Captains from leading their crews into massacres! In addition, a flat 10% is returned to the patrons and sponsors of the voyage as their profit. Generally, the Captain's financiers will make this money available again as capital for the next voyage. Shares to the crew are an equal distribution of everything remaining. The size of each crewman's share affects the Captain's reputation. If the shares are large, the Captain's prestige is enhanced. If the shares are small, the Captain's reputation suffers, making it harder for him to recruit new crewmen. GAINS & GOALS - An Age of New Beginnings: This is an era of privilege. A man of high rank or title lives under different laws than the commoners. More importantly, this is an age of social mobility. Old families with the wrong religious beliefs, incorrect political views or insufficient wealth disappear from the national scene. Even the royal houses change frequently. England's royal family was the House of Tudor to 1603, the House of Stuart to 1649, the Cromwellian Commonwealth to 1660, the House of Stuart again to 1688, and then the House of Orange! Onto this stage of turmoil and change, a single man of energy and boldness can grasp power and prestige for generations to come. A common seafarer from an undistinguished family, such as Francis Drake, could gain titles of nobility, rank, honors, and immense prestige. What to Seek? Planning for a happy retirement means seeking as much of everything as possible. Personal wealth is always valuable. Land is also useful - among the nobility, for example, land is considered the measure of a man. As a rule, the more you accomplish at a rink, the more land you receive when you are promoted to the next higher rank. In addition your reputation, your family (including a wife, if any), and your health all contribute to your future happiness. When to Retire? Roving the seas is an enjoyable and exciting life, but a wise man keeps an eye toward retirement. Eventually wounds from battle and the taxing demands of sea voyages affect your health. If your health is poor, helpful friends will advise retirement. Heed their advice - if you ignore them life becomes more and more difficult, until one day you are unable to recruit a new crew for another voyage. In general, your career is limited to five to ten years of active endeavor. However, waiting until you're at death's door is not a good way to start a happy retirement! THE MEMOIRS OF CAPT'N SYDNEY - Me voyages were always a fine balance between the men's temper and their strength. It took time t' build up a fleet of three or four ships and a sturdy band of a few hundreds. By the time all'd be assembled, they'd be right and hungry for plunder. I had'a please 'em quick with some fine, large stoke. Like plunderin' a city or three. If'n I didn't, they'd get so surly as t' be unreliable in battle and desertin' at every port. Eventually, ye must either accomplish some grand design, as I did at Campeche, or just put in, divide the swag, and hope the next cruise be better. Me biggest disappointment always was settling accounts after a cruise. I'll grant it 'twas all done democratic and fair-like, but 'tis none the less frustratin' to be already thinkin' pon the next expedition, and here me fine fleet scatters! Reputation was my most treasured possession. A few successful cruises gave me much in others' estimations. Havin' the good word about helped raise new crews, even if the last voyage 'twas a bit thin on the pickin's. Of course, maintainin' a big reputation required ever bigger exploits. In the fact, that a' why I retired. I just couldn't top me own adventures! Still, a large reputation was a godsend in later life, let'in' me escape mortification more than once. HISTORICAL FOOTNOTES - A Captain's Qualifications: Among buccaneers the Captain was elected by the crew, not appointed by government or owners (as is common on military or commercial vessels). He was the man the crew agreed was best for the job. I If the crew decided the Captain was inept, they would replace him with another of their number. Often the new candidate dueled the old for the Captaincy. In the crew's mind, the Captain's most important skill was leading them in battle. For this they wanted bravery and ferocity more than they wanted tactical genius. However, the best Captains, such as Henry Morgan, had both. Outside of battle, when dealing with governors and other officials, the Captain acted as 'front man' to represent the group. Although pirates professed disdain for the privilege and status of the aristocracy, often their Captains were former military men, merchants or aristocrats with a 'lordly manner'. Finally a Captain needed a good reputation, with numerous past successes to his credit. It was his name that brought new recruits aboard. This experience was doubly valuable since most of the really good plans for profitable expeditions were conceived by veteran Captain. Henry Morgan was a Welsh adventurer. Although his origins are uncertain, he probably came to the Antilles in 1655 as part of the invasion force that captured Jamaica. He advanced both as a militia officer (on land) and a privateering leader (at sea). In 1667 he was commissioned as Admiral of Privateers by the English governor at Port Royale. In the next few years he plundered numerous ships and cities, including Puerto Bello. Then, in 1671, he took Panama, the richest city in the New World. Patrons who benefited financially from his Panama expedition included Sir Thomas Modyford (Governor of Jamaica), George Monck (the Duke of Albemarle, Modyford's aging but influential patron at Court), and James Stewart (Lord High Admiral, the Duke of York, and incidentally, the brother of Charles II, King of England since his restoration in 1660). Despite the Treaty of Madrid (in 1670) where England pledged to stop attacks on Spain, none of these notables refused their share of the expedition's reward! Morgan was officially "arrested" (probably to mollify the Spanish ambassador) but not confined. He travelled in aristocratic circles, was toasted everywhere, and consulted on West Indian policy by the King's advisors. In 1674 King Charles II knighted him Sir Henry Morgan. He was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica, where he lived a pleasant life amid his large plantations. COLONIAL LIFE ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ THE GOVERNOR - Towns with a population greater than six hundred citizens have a governor. His residence is the seat of government, and the center of news and intrigue for the colony. A governor's attitude toward you begins with the "official" attitude of his nation toward your activities. However, any particular favors you have done for him are remembered, as well as any especially nasty things you have done to his city (such as plundering it!) You can curry favor with a governor by capturing pirates in waters near his port and then returning that pirate to him. Conversely, a governor is dismayed if you capture his nation's ships near his town, and is especially unhappy if you've plundered his town. When a governor is hostile to you, he will order any harbor forts to fire upon your vessels as they sail in. In general, if the governor's nation is hostile toward you the forts usually fire. If the nation is wary, the governor's personal attitude and the size of your force are deciding factors. The nation may not be wary, but the governor may still remember past transgressions toward his area. Therefore, consider your actions carefully, especially in the vicinity of rich non-Spanish ports. Ranks & Titles: The governor of a town is responsible for protecting and guarding it from attack. But all too often, he has no money, no naval forces, and pitifully few land troops. So, he commissions loyal subjects to aid him, giving them military ranks and authority. Naturally, a governor favors men who have proved their bravery and worth by fighting then enemy, while ignoring those who have done nothing for his cause. The military ranks a governor bestows are, from lowest to highest: ENSIGN of Privateers, a junior officer or aide CAPTAIN of Privateers, commanding a ship MAJOR of a Colonial Militia, commanding a company COLONEL of a Colonial Militia, commanding a regiment ADMIRAL of Privateers, commanding a fleet After military ranks, a governor might use his influence at Court to promote patents of nobility for valued associates. Naturally, you must perform large and significant services to gain such bounty. From lowest to highest, these title are: BARON, a minor title, but a knighthood none the less COUNT, a title of some prestige and power MARQUIS, a title of significant prestige and power DUKE, a title of great prestige and power EUROPEAN POLITICS - Whenever you attack a nation's ships or towns, that nation becomes ill- disposed toward you. A few attacks may make it wary, while many attacks make it hostile. Naturally, don't expect advancement from a governor of a wary or hostile nation. However, if your target is at war, the target's wartime opponent will applaud your actions and those governors may reward you. For example, if England and Spain are at war, attacks on the Spanish will make the Spanish wary or hostile, but make the English very happy. If nations are allied, attacks on a nation are remembered and disliked by its ally. For example, England is allied with Holland but at war with Spain. If you attack English towns or ships the Spanish governor will be delighted and the English angry. In addition, England's ally Holland will also be angry. This is because the Dutch are concerned about attacks on their ally. However, if you attack Spanish towns and ships, the English governor will be delighted, but the Dutch won't care: The Dutch are still at peace with Spain, and thus unwilling to reward military activities against her. Although declarations of war, peace and alliance are public knowledge, ends of alliances are not. Of course, when former allies declare war, it's a safe assumption that the alliance is over! Otherwise, to learn the "inside news" about a nation's politics, visit one of its governors. Even if you sneak into town, the governor's mansion remains the best source of news. PIRATE AMNESTY - When a nation offers a pirate amnesty, it is willing to forget its former hostility toward pirates. Each governor of that nation is empowered to offer former pirates a pardon for their activities, although sometimes the pardon can be expensive. When seeking an amnesty, be careful about sailing into harbor. Although the nation may offer an amnesty, a local governor may still distrust you enough to open fire. This is especially likely if your force is large, or you have made attacks in the vicinity. If you sneak into town you usually have a better chance of getting to the governor and convincing him to provide the amnesty his nation promises. THE TAVERN - The first time you visit a tavern openly your reputation will precede you. Men often approach you, hoping to join your crew. Subsequent visits while in port will not yield additional recruits. Men are attracted to heroes, not drunks! You can purchase information from travellers who have recently visited another town. They will know the state of the town's population, economy, and defenses. If you are looking for somebody believed to be at that town, they usually remember if he's been seen there recently. Finally, the tavern is a center for public news of all sorts, and a home for old pirates and other rumormongers. LOCAL MERCHANTS - The lifeblood of any colonial town is trade. The strength of the local merchant community is proportional to the town's economic strength and population. A strong merchant community has many goods for sale, and plenty of money to buy yours. It also has higher prices. Small, poor towns have the lowest prices, but their merchants are poor also, with tiny warehouses. Economic experts find the 16th and 17th Century Caribbean a most peculiar place, especially on the Spanish Main. Complex and restrictive trade laws, combined with peculiar and unnatural population patterns, produce unexpected situations. Most importantly, individual towns often have special markets and needs, causing especially high or low prices for certain items. All these effects are transitory, but while some patterns only last days or weeks, others can last for years. Merchants are usually happy to trade with privateers, pirates and smugglers. After all, a profit is a profit! Merchants in Spanish towns are an exception. SPANISH TRADE RESTRICTIONS - Towns and cities on the Spanish Main have four levels of economic vitality. This affects the affairs of their merchants. In Spanish towns it is illegal to trade with anyone other than Spanish merchants who sailed from Seville and are properly accredited by the Spanish government. However, local governors and merchants often ignore this tiresome legality, especially if the economy is suffering. As a result, traders in towns may ignore what the national government says and instead develop their own opinions, based on your deeds in that area. Struggling towns are in economic difficulties. They will trade with almost anyone, regardless of laws, excepting only pirates whose reputation in that area is extremely evil. Of course, prices and quantities of goods are usually quite low. Surviving towns have either small or depressed economies. The Spanish usually trade with foreigners whose local reputation is fairly decent. Prices and quantities of goods are modest. Prosperous towns have large, strong economies. Prosperous Spanish towns only trade with Captains of high repute. Prices are fairly high and goods are available in reasonable quantities. Wealthy towns are at the peak of the economic spectrum. These Spanish towns almost always follow the letter of the lay. Prices are high and goods are plentiful. THE RISE & FALL OF COLONIES - All other things being equal, colonies slowly prosper and grow, gaining economic strength, which attracts population, who in turn hoard wealth, which obliges the government to install troops and forts to protect this wealth. Traders and smugglers help this economic growth with their buying, selling and carriage of goods. But pirates, buccaneers and privateers taking ships from waters near the colony will hurt its economic growth. Indian attacks will deplete the soldiers guarding the town, but leave the population and economy unaffected. Pirate raids on a town take whatever gold the pirates can find. The raid also damages the economy. Malaria and other diseases reduce both the troop garrison and the number of citizens. This tends to slow down or even stop economic growth. Gold mines cause a one-time upswing in the economy and add large quantities of disposable gold. The gold mine is usually just a short-lived alluvial wash in a nearby stream or river, but it invariably generates a "gold rush" mentality boom town. THE MEMOIRS OF CAPT'N SYDNEY God's truth, I started honestly enough, carryin' good European manufacture to the Indies. But the big, rich towns with nice prices were all Spanish, and those thieven' Dons just wouldn't let me into market. I found a few smaller towns that'd do business, privately, but me profits suffered. But at the next city some papist blueblood, blind 'im, recognized me for English and I rotted for six months in a foul dungeon, tortured by their damnable Inquisition, 'til me crew rescued me. Betwixt times, the filthy Dons had taken my ship and cargo, every last ounce of it. So I had to make my own justice. We took a handy pinnace a' lyin' in the harbor, mounted a few guns, and taught those Spaniards a lesson! I've a Dutch friend who maintain the best route to fortune is friendly trade. He buys low, transports it, and sells high. He keeps his crew low and pays 'em off regularly, bankin' his profits. 'E even claims the towns benefit from his trade 'n' such. Well, I tell ye, I'd not sail the Main with twenty men and four cannon, no siree! But then, I trust to steel 'n' gunpowder, not to accounts ledgers. Anyway, I've never forgotten that Spanish dungeon, and made 'em pay dearly for it. I'd keep abreast of the news, matey. A couple Indian attacks or plagues and they'd be ripe for the pluckin'. Attackin' 'em after a pirate raid wasn't so smart. They'd be cleaned out, but the garrison'd be reinforced and smartin' for action. The King, God bless 'em, is right obligen' in havin' convenient wars. Me Letters of Marque are all proper and legal, but I've a 'known fellows who'd get some clerk for forge up any ol' thing. One dunderhead had a Letter a' Marque alright - a Letter t' kill sheep! Didn't stop him none from goin' after the Spanish a'course. Most of me victories left me wi' more plunder in food, tobacco, sugar and goods than it did shin' gold. I 'member one cruise where I chanced upon Trinidad, lookin' to sell a bit a' loot. Had a right nice fleet, then. We landed up the coast and marched into town. Some insolent Spaniard said something that got me back up. Well, quick as a wink we had the garrison locked in its own dungeon and the citizens cowering behind their doors. We were enjoying ourselves in the mansion of the gov'nor, who'd disappeared right sudden. Then a delegation of the leading citizens visited us. They begged us to rein-in our men. I confess some were gettin' a' tad enthused in their plunderin'. We thought on it. One of the leading merchants was part English, so we said that if they flew the Cross of Saint George, pledged themselves to the English Crown, and appointed that part-English merchant their governor, we'd settle down and respect their property, legal as you please. Shortly after that I took a wound in a battle off Margarita, curse it, and was laid up for a while. I never did find out how long Trinidad remained "English". Pe'haps not so long. But I ne'er heard of me friends having trouble there again. I'd like to emphasize, though, that we had a powerful lot of men, and the populace 'twas right small. With us fewer, or them more, it'd a' never happened. HISTORICAL FOOTNOTES - No Peace Beyond the Line: In 1493 and 1494 the only two European powers exploring the world (Spain and Portugal) agreed to a "fair" division of responsibility along a north-south line 270 leagues west of the cape Verde Islands. In the Treaty of Tordesillas, Portugal gained authority over the eastern Atlantic, the African coast, and what became the African route to India. Spain gained authority of the western Atlantic and the entire New World except the tip of the Brazilian coast. Supported by a Papall Bull, Spain claimed this gave her sole possession and control over the Americas. Unfortunately for Spain, the English, Dutch and French governments never recognized the legality of this line. The result was that English, French and Dutch traders and colonists constantly "invaded" Spanish regions where their presence was illegal by Spanish law. However, Spain never installed sufficient military strength in the region to consistently enforce her laws. So, even when European nations were at peace, the constant smuggling and colonization could cause small battles at any time. Worse, each time European nations went to war, an orgy of privateering and piracy exploded across the West Indies. Privateers: In the 16th and 17th Centuries royal governments were desperately short on funds (useful taxation techniques, such as universal income tax, had not been invented). Building warships, much less maintaining and crewing them, was so expensive that even powerful battleships doubled as cargo carriers in peacetime. What few did exist were needed in home waters. Colonial governors got little or no military forces. Most colonies relied on a local militia for their defense. Not until the 1680s did a nation base a regular squadron of warships in the Caribbean for use year-round. Because nations had little or no fleet, in wartime the crown 'commissioned' private ships to become its navy. These "freelance" warriors were not paid wages. Instead, they kept a large percentage of whatever they captured. The official authorization for this was the "Letter of Marque". Ships operating with a Letter of Marque were "privateers". The English fleet that defeated the Spanish invasion Armada (in 1588) was almost completely composed of privateers. In an age of poverty and limited wealth, privateering was one of the few ways to make a quick fortune. Those men who sailed with Francis Drake on his 1572-73 privateering voyage to Nombre de Dios (where he captured the Silver Train) returned rich for life. A crewman's share from the capture of just one merchantman was often more than a sailor's yearly wage in peacetime. A privateer Captain known for skill and success had little trouble recruiting. Beyond the benefits to the crew, privateering was big business. Wealthy merchants and noblemen put up the money for a voyage, and earned a percentage of the "take" in return. The gains were also split with the crown (the "price" of a Letter of Marque). The sale of prizes and captured goods was a godsend to merchants, who resold it for a profit. This created a prosperous colonial economy. In the 1660s and 1670s the prime industry of Jamaica was neither sugar nor tobacco, but piracy! The Buccaneers: These men were a special breed who appeared in the West Indies during the 1630s and 1640s, and remained a feature there throughout the century. Most buccaneers were fugitives from English and French colonial ventures. Many colonists came to the Americas expecting to find a paradise full of easy wealth. Instead they were indentured servants on harsh tobacco and sugar plantations. Some were violent criminals sentenced to "transportation to the colonies". Whatever their origin, they left the tiny colonies to live free and easy among the islands. Buccaneers learned two vital skills to survive outside of an organized colony. The first was seaman ship. They were experts at building small canoes or pinnaces, and quite skilled at sailing them from island to island. The second was marksmanship. Their livelihood was hinting wild animals and cattle. In fact, the name "buccaneer" is derived from their method of curing meat over an open fire. In didn't take long before buccaneers combined their skills of seamanship and marksmanship, taking to the seas in search of treasure and wealth. The Spanish colonies, militarily weak and economically failing, were easy targets for buccaneer attacks. The old tradition of "No Peach Beyond The Line" lent quasi-legality to their activities, while their use of non-spanish ports as trading bases helped the new colonies grow. It wasn't difficult for a British, French or Dutch governor to condone buccaneering on the principle that the best defense against Spanish aggression was a good offense, especially an offense by troops who provided their own pay, and profit to the colony as well! The buccaneers had a free-wheeling, democratic spirit. They were hard- living, violent men, ideally suited to the hard and violent life on a new frontier. The End of Piracy: By the 1690s and 1700s nations offered privateering commissions less and less often. National navies were larger now. The financial advantages of peaceful trade were recognized as more valuable than the occasional profits from a privateer's plunder. Buccaneers and old privateers, with legal and quasi-legal avenues closed, continued anyway. they turned truly pirate and roamed the seven seas, looking for rich ships with weak defenses. But it was increasingly difficult to find men willing to finance new ventures, while naval warships gradually chased down and destroyed the existing pirates. By the 1700s pirates were disappearing from the Caribbean, by the 1710s the North American and West African coasts were too hot for them, and by the 1720s even distant Madagascar and the Indian Ocean were closing. An age of adventure on the high seas was over. A GAZETTEER OF SHIPS CIRCA 1690 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Among the myriad types, sizes and rigs of ships sailing the Caribbean, nine basic approaches to shipbuilding can be discerned. Although each ship was individually designed and build, shipwrights learned by copying one another, producing ships of remarkable similarity. These general types are summarized below. However, expect to meet the exception more often than the rule! DEFINITIONS - Burden, in tons, refers to available cargo space, after deduction for food, water, crewmen, and other common materials and stores. This should not be confused with tonnage that describes the entire weight-carrying capacity of the ship when completely unloaded. Speeds are given in leagues (about 2.5 miles) travelled during a watch (about four hours). The first value is best speed in light wind, the second is best speed in strong wind. Best Point of Sailing refers to the wind direction in which the ship makes its best speed. Each type of ship has a different point of sailing. Beam Reach | Broad Beam Reach | Close-Hauled Beam Reach \ | / \ | / Broad Reach \ | / Close-Hauled \ \ | / / \ \ | / / \ \ | / / Running Broad \ \ | / / Close-Hauled Reach \ \ | / / into the Eye \ \ \ | / / / \ \ \ | / / / \ \ \ | / / / Running \ \ \ | / / / Into the eye Before the Wind \ \|/ / of the Wind +------------------------- + -------------------------+ / /|\ \ / / / | \ \ \ / / / | \ \ \ / / / | \ \ \ / / / | \ \ \ Running Broad / / | \ \ Close-Hauled Reach / / | \ \ into the Eye / / | \ \ / / | \ \ / / | \ \ Broad Reach / | \ Close-Hauled / | \ / | \ Broad Beam | Close-Hauled Reach | Beam Reach | Beam Reach * SPANISH GALLEON * 7-15 Leagues..........Best Speed Broad Reach...........Best Point of Sailing 36 Guns...............Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 20-24 Guns............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 288 Men...............Maximum Personnel 275 Men...............Typical Crew and Passengers 160 Tons..............Cargo Space Galleons are the largest sailing vessels on the Spanish Main. Originally they were created because one large ship was cheaper to build than two smaller ones. However, large ships were much less maneuverable, which increased the chance of shipwreck, not to mention hindering them in battle. Galleons are slow to turn, and are especially poor sailers close-hauled. Tacking into the wind is very difficult with this type of ship. Still, the enormous carrying capacity and powerful armament makes the galleon a formidable opponent in battle. * SPANISH WAR GALLEON * 7-15 Leagues..........Best Speed Broad Reach or........Best Point of Sailing Running Reach 32 Guns...............Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 28-32 Guns............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 256 Men...............Maximum Personnel 250 Men...............Typical Crew and Passengers 140 Tons..............Cargo Space War Galleons are similar to mercantile types. They have less cargo capacity, but more guns and crewmen. The most important difference is that war galleons are crewed by soldiers and commanded by noble officers, making them brave and formidable opponents in battle. Due to their better crew, war galleons are slightly faster than merchant Galleons on a running broad reach, but otherwise just as ponderous and unmaneuverable as their more peaceful cousins. Only the most powerful warships can expect to engage a war galleon and succeed. The preferred Spanish tactic with these ships was to run alongside the opponent, fire one broadside at point-blank range, then board for hand-to-hand combat. * FAST GALLEON * 9-12 Leagues..........Best Speed Broad Reach or........Best Point of Sailing Running Reach 28 Guns...............Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 24 Guns...............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 224 Men...............Maximum Personnel 215 Men...............Typical Crew and Passengers 120 Tons..............Cargo Space The northern European powers refined the basic Galleon Design, revising the sail plan for more flexibility, then reducing the upperworks and hull shape for better seakeeping. The resulting ship was smaller than a Spanish galleon, but faster in light winds and considerable more maneuverable. However, it suffers the universal disadvantage of all galleons - poor speed when close-hauled. Still, its superior maneuverability and seakeeping showed when the English fast galleons and smaller craft defeated a Spanish fleet of conventional galleons in 1588. * FRIGATE * 9-12 Leagues..........Best Speed Broad Reach or........Best Point of Sailing Running Reach 28 Guns...............Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 26-28 Guns............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 224 Men...............Maximum Personnel 190 Men...............Typical Crew 120 Tons..............Cargo Space Square-rigged frigates are fast sailers, fairly handy to maneuver, and faster than most square-rigged ships when close-hauled. A frigate is extraordinary useful for patrols and independent cruises. Almost all frigates are built for the Crown as naval warships. With their well-drilled and professional crews, frigates are dangerous opponents at any time. Most pirates and buccaneers disappear over the horizon whenever a frigate appears. * MERCHANTMAN * 9-12 Leagues..........Best Speed Broad Reach...........Best Point of Sailing 24 Guns...............Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 6-12 Guns.............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 198 Men...............Maximum Personnel 20-45 Men.............Typical Crew and Passengers 100 Tons..............Cargo Space Square-rigged merchantmen are a trader's dream. They have large cargo capacity, space for numerous guns for use in dangerous waters, and plenty of room for crew and passengers. Furthermore, where appropriate they can be sailed with a smallish crew to save money. Most merchantmen are peaceful traders, disinclined to fight. They tend to have large cargos and sometimes a bit of wealth. Privateers and pirates always look forward to capturing a "juicy" merchantman. However, some merchantmen have been converted to pirate ships, with stronger armament and a ferocious crew of cutthroats. These ships are extremely dangerous. * CARGO FLUYT * 9-12 Leagues..........Best Speed Running Reach.........Best Point of Sailing 20 Guns...............Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 4-12 Guns.............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 160 Men...............Maximum Personnel 12-24 Men.............Typical Crew and Passengers 80 Tons...............Cargo Space Fluyts were invented by the Dutch around 1600, then widely copied throughout northern Europe. Essentially a smaller but much more economical merchantman, it can be sailed with a tiny crew (12 to 15 men is not uncommon). A fluyt has large cargo spaces, but a draft so shallow it can enter rivers, coves and small harbors unsuitable to large craft. It's sailing qualities are equivalent to a merchantman, although the best point of sailing is slightly different. The smallest of the square-rigged ships, fluyts make poor warships. Almost always they are manned by peaceful traders who often surrender after a broadside or two. They are unpopular as pirate ships. * BARQUE * 9-12 Leagues..........Best Speed Broad Beam Reach......Best Point of Sailing 16 Guns...............Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 4-6 Guns..............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 128 Men...............Maximum Personnel 12-36 Men.............Typical Crew and Passengers 60 Tons...............Cargo Space The largest for-and-aft rigged ships, barques are a traditional design similar to many Mediterranean merchant and war craft. Many barques are built in the Caribbean, rather than in Europe. Barques are good sailers for quiet seas, but all too easily come to grief in a rough ocean crossing. This means that few Barques return from the Caribbean to Europe, as the North Atlantic west-to-east route is often stormy. Barques are the slowest close-hauled sailers among fore-and-aft rigs, and the least maneuverable. However, the advantages of the rig are so great that Barques still surpass all square-rigged ships in both departments. Furthermore, barques carry oars, allowing them to row straight into the eye of the wind. Due to its large size and good handling, a pirate barque can be a formidable adversary. * SLOOP * 9-10 Leagues..........Best Speed Broad Reach or........Best Point of Sailing Broad Beam Reach 12 Guns...............Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 4-6 Guns..............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 96 Men................Maximum Personnel 8-12 Men..............Typical Crew and Passengers 40 Tons...............Cargo Space Another Dutch design that gradually appeared during the 1630s and 1640s, the sloop (or jact, or schooner) became very popular in the Caribbean. It is extremely fast and exceptionally maneuverable - better than almost any other ship in light winds. Close-Hauled it sails very fast, and under oars it can move directly into the wind. Most importantly, sloops have a shallow draft, allowing them to sail over shoals with no risk. The main weakness of a sloop is that in strong winds it is considerable slower than a large square-rigged ship. Then›only advantage is its maneuverability and its superior speed close-hauled or into the wind. Despite its modest size and cargo capacity, a sloop's maneuverability is so great that many buccaneers prefer it to larger, more powerful craft. Indeed, in recent years the English Royal Navy has built a number of sloops for its own use as pirate-catchers. * PINNACE * 9-10 Leagues..........Best Speed Broad Beam Reach......Best Point of Sailing or a Beam Reach 8 Guns................Maximum Number of Heavy Cannon 2-4 Guns..............Typical Number of Heavy Cannon 64 Men................Maximum Personnel 8-12 Men..............Typical Crew and Passengers 20 Tons...............Cargo Space Until the advent of the sloop, pinnaces were the primary small craft of the Caribbean. Like a sloop, a pinnace is very fast, very maneuverable, and with a draft that permits sailing in shoal waters. Sailing upwind (close-hauled) it is even faster than a sloop, and much faster when rowing into the wind. However, a pinnace is also much smaller than a sloop, with minuscule capacity for cargo and guns. Still, many a pirate raid was conducted in tiny pinnaces crammed with fighting men. Drake himself abandoned his merchantmen in favor of pinnaces when raiding on the Spanish Main. BOOK III THE GOLDEN ANTILLES ::::::::::::::::::: FAMOUS EXPEDITIONS ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ JOHN HAWKINS AND THE BATTLE OF SAN JUAN DE ULUA (1569) - Your Forces: One Slow Galleon: Jesus of Lubeck One Merchantman: Minion Four Pinnaces: William and John, Swallow, Angel, Judith 308 men. Political Situation: Spain is at war with France and England. Your Prospects: You have a formidable squadron, but the flagship is a cumbersome, unmaneuverable galleon of the Spanish type. As you approach the Spanish Main, your big decision must be: peaceful trade, or warlike raids? Peaceful trade means you can use the smaller Spanish ports to reprovision and perhaps even recruit additional crew. However, it also means that the rich larger ports are closed to you. Unfortunately, the profits from peaceful trade are modest, especially so given your large crew and the slowness of your flagship. Warlike raids offer a better prospect for immediate gain, but your fleet isn't strong enough to attack the truly great cities such as Santiago, Santo Domingo, or Panama. For repairs you can use the privateer anchorages at the tip of Florida and in the Bahamas. These places have few provisions, but captured Spanish ships could provide those. Your biggest problem will be selling captured goods and replacing crewmen lost in battle. Historical Chronicle: Inheritor at age 21 of an English shipping firm, John Hawkins voyaged twice to the West Indies (in 1562 and 1564), selling European goods and African slaves to smaller Spanish towns. In 1567 he organized his third and largest expedition (this one) around the galleon Jesus of Lubeck. On the Main, Hawkins found the Spanish increasingly unwilling to trade with him. The Spanish home government was aware of Hawkins' voyage, and was putting pressure on the colonials to obey the letter of the law. Hawkins resorted to forcing open the marketplace at gunpoint in a few ports, and was chased out of others by gunfire from forts. Disappointed by the Main, Hawkins set sail for Havana, but a storm blew his ships far into the Gulf of Campeche. The only harbor where he could repair his ships was San Juan de Ulua, the island anchorage for Vera Cruz. Unfortunately for Hawkins, the day after he arrived the Spanish treasure fleet appeared, armed to the teeth with war galleons and troops. After a few days of organizing, the Spanish attacked Hawkins in harbor, destroying most of his ships and scattering the rest. These sad remnants, without food or water, struggled home to England. Hawkins got home on the Minion with only fifteen men left in his crew. After this voyage, Hawkins became a staunch enemy of Spain, serving England as treasure and controller of the Navy, an admiral on the Victory against the Spanish Armada, leader of raids against Spanish South America, and finally as Member of Parliament. He died in 1595 at age 63. FRANCIS DRAKE AND THE SILVER TRAIN AMBUSH (1573) - Your Forces: One Merchantman: Pasha One Pinnace: Swan 73 men. Political Situation: Spain is at war with England. Your Prospects: Only a man with foolhardy bravery would dare attack the Spanish Main at the peak of its might and power with a paltry 73 men on board two small ships. Making any profit from this venture will be most difficult. A cautious man would adopt a trading strategy, calling at smaller Spanish ports and building both his wealth and his crew before beginning to raid and plunder. Only someone as bold as Drake himself would immediately begin raiding and plundering, trusting to luck and good fortune. This is an extremely difficult expedition for a fighter. You must rely on your superb and charismatic leadership to overwhelm enemies in hand-to-hand combat before they wipe out your tiny forces. Exploit and maintain the high morale of your small band. Always seek to meet the enemy leaders sword to sword and defeat them quickly. Needless to say, skill in fencing is advised. Historical Chronicle: Drake arrived on the Main in June, 1572 with two small ships. Within five days he raided Nombre de Dios, carrying off a huge pile of silver from the governor's house before a musket ball wound overcame him. Next he captured a ship off Cartagena (the city itself was too strong to attack). By September he was back in the Gulf of Darien, taking Spanish ships to replenish his provisions and trying to ambush the Silver Train between Panama and Nombre de Dios. But that the winter he failed: the Spanish were alert to his threat. Drake returned to his distant and secret base at the Isle of the Pines (at the southwest end of Cuba) and reorganized. He gathered up reinforcements from friendly French privateers and Cimaroon rebels. (Cimaroons were African slaves who escaped the Spanish). In March 1573 he returned to Darien and finally ambushed the Silver Train at Nombre de Dios, taking a fortune in gold. He had to leave behind another fortune in silver because it was too heavy to carry! Drake sailed swiftly for England and arrived at Plymouth on Sunday, August 9, 1573. A mere thirty Englishmen returned with him, but each survivor was rich for life. In 1577-80 Drake raided the Pacific coast of Spain's American empire, then returned via Asia, circumnavigating the globe. With Hawkins he was an admiral of the fleet that defeated the Spanish Armada (1588), but died of disease in 1596 (at age 56) after an attack on San Juan, where some Spanish treasure galleons had sought shelter. PIET HEYN AND THE TREASURE FLEET (1628) - Your Forces: Four Fast Galleons: Vergulde Valk, Hollandia, Dolfijn, Haarlem Two Sloops: Tijger, Postpaard 700 men. Political Situation: Holland is at war with Spain and allied with England. France and England are also at war with Spain. Your Prospects: You command a powerful if cumbersome squadron, vanguard of the great Dutch privateering fleet. The Spanish Treasure Fleet is an excellent goal. However, it's late in the season. You must start hunting immediately off Havana or in the Florida Channel. You'll undoubtedly find a variety of smaller ships, but if you're lucky and persistent, you may find the treasure galleons. If you miss the treasure fleet, don't be shy about raiding a Spanish port or two. Your forces are not especially maneuverable, buy they are quite powerful. This is a situation where a good plan, patient execution, and more than a little luck are the keys to success. Historical Chronicle: Piet Heyn was already a famous Captian when he sailed under Admiral Willekens and led the 1624 attack that captured the Spanish colony of Sao Salvador (Bahia) on the Brazilian coast. Although the conquest only lasted one year, the Dutch gained invaluable expertise in producing fine sugar from sugar cane, knowledge they spread around the Caribbean in the succeeding decade. By 1626 Sao Salvador was producing for Spain again, so Heyn raided it again! In 1628 Heyn sailed for the West Indies with a powerful warfleet of nine large warships and five jachts (sloops). He cruised along the Main, then swung up to th north coast of Cuba. Off Havana he finally sighted the Spanish treasure fleet of forty to fifty sail. He quickly captured nine small stragglers while the rest escaped in all directions, two running aground in the process. Four royal treasure galleons fled in Matanzas Bay on the Cuban coast. Heyn pursued them ran his ships onto the shoals alongside the Spanish, traded broadsides and boarded. The battered and demoralized Spanish either surrendered or fled ashore, leaving 46 tons of silver in Dutch hands. This loss ruined the Spanish economy and gave the Dutch government much-needed funds at a critical point in the Thirty Years War. There was great rejoicing in Amsterdam when a fast jacht sailed into that port carrying the news of Heyn's fabulous victory. L'OLLONAIS AND THE SACK OF MARACAIBO (1666) - Your Forces: One Sloop Five Pinnaces 400 men. Political Situation: France is at war with England and Spain, and allied to Holland. In addition, England and Holland are at war. Your Prospects: Your force is strong in men but weak in naval power. Therefore, like L'Ollonais, your best prospects are in attacks on ports rather than captures at sea. All but the strongest Spanish cities are within your grasp. Beware the fragile morale of your men. These Tortuga buccaneers are impatient for riches. They will not tolerate long, fruitless cruises. But still, a target must be selected with car. One disappointment an mutiny is not far off. This expedition is challenging but not extraordinarily difficult. However, you must exercise good judgement at the start, and then execute the plan quickly and confidently. HISTORICAL CHRONICLE: Arriving in the Indies as an indentured servant to the planter in French Hispaniola, Jean-David Nau came fro the Les Sables d'Ollone in Brittany. When his indenture was up in 1660 he immediately went to Tortuga; within a few years he was commanding his own buccaneer voyages. Nicknamed L'Ollonais ("the man from d'Ollone"), he was one of the most ferocious and inhuman pirates who ever lived. In 1666 the terror and prestige of his name was enough to collect a fleet of small boats, crowded with men, bound for Maracaibo. he surprised the forts and took the city by storm. Despite a bloody plundering that lasted a fortnight, the town yielded only modest amounts of gold and silver. His next stop was Gibraltar. The Spanish there mustered a powerful militia, but after a difficult fight in marshy ground, L'Ollonais' buccaneers prevailed again. The town was thoroughly sacked, inhabitants tortured and killed, and ruins left in the Frenchman's wake. Six months after departing, L'Ollonais arrived at Tortuga with enough plunder to return to France a wealthy man. But he had expected riches beyond imagination. So L'Ollonais mounted a new expedition to the coast of Nicaragua and Honduras. Despite escalating barbarity and cruelty, he found so little that his companion ships sailed away,leaving his tiny band forlorn and hungry. L'Ollonais and his men went inland, raiding Indian villages for food. This final bit of nastiness was his undoing. Jean-David Nau's muttering and mutinous crew deserted him when vengeful Indians ambushed the party. Grievously wounded by poison arrows, he was clubbed to death. HENRY MORGAN, THE KING'S PIRATE (1671) - Your Forces: One Frigate: Satisfaction Two Merchantmen: Lilly, Dolphin One Barque: Mayflower Two Sloops: Fortune, William One Pinnace: Prosperous 600 men. Political Situation: England and France are both at war with Spain. Your Prospects: You have a formidable force for either land or sea fighting. You could seek additional recruits and food, or you can immediately venture against almost any place in the Indies with good prospects of success. Your greatest immediate difficulties are procuring enough food to keep your men fed, and enough plunder to keep up morale. This is an expedition that appears easy initially, but can become rather challenging. Historical Chronicle: Henry Morgan was a successful privateer and buccaneer leader. He had sacked Puerto Principe, plundered Gran Granada on the far side of Nicaragua, overwhelmed the fortifications of Puerto Bello, and followed in L'Ollonais' footsteps at Maracaibo and Gibraltar, although both places yielded little wealth and plenty of hot fighting with aroused Spanish defenders. On August 24, 1670, Morgan sailed as Admiral of Privateers under the auspices of Governor Modyford of Jamaica. He rendezvoused with French buccaneers from Tortuga and western Hispaniola, swelling his forces to 2,000 men or more, making him strong enough for any venture. His goal was Panama, richest city of the Spanish overseas empire. Sailing upriver and then marching overland, he arrived outside the city in January, 1671. Here the governor of the province, Don Juan Perez de Guzman, had collected his troops and militia. On the plains outside the city the two forces fought a pitched battle. The Spanish lost. The city was taken, plundered, and ultimately burned to the ground. However, the loot was disappointing. Many of the richest Spaniards had fled with their families and wealth, rather than staying around to defend it. The sack of Panama was Morgan's crowning achievement. He wisely retired while still ahead. Although Modyford lost his governorship and was imprisoned because of the affair, Morgan received a knighthood. He retired on Jamaica an honored and wealthy man. He died of too much drink in 1688, at age 53. BARON DE PONTIS AND THE LAST EXPEDITION (1697) - Your Forces: Five Frigates One Sloop 1200 men Political Situation: France is at war with England and Spain. Your Prospects: Your force is the most powerful ever on the Spanish Main. You are free to select the target of your choice and strike. The real question is, how much treasure can you carry off? This expedition is a pleasant romp, suitable for commanders who enjoy the 'sure thing'. To obtain a suitable challenge at all, select Swashbuckler difficulty level. After all, in the real expedition both de Pontis and du Casse were wounded in battle! Historical Chronicle: In March 1697 Baron de Pontis was in Saint Domingue (the French colonies of Western Hispaniola) with thirteen warships of the royal French navy under his command. Louis XIV's France was simultaneously at war with England and Spain, and running short of men, ships and money. The Baron's goal: Cartagena. His purpose? To strike a crippling blow at Spain as well as securing a large treasure to support the French war effort. Jean Baptiste du Casse, the French colonial governor since 1691, was ordered to support de Pointis. He collected hundred of local buccaneers and privateers under the command of Jean Bernard Louis Desjeans, who had sailed with the French privateering fleets of the 1680s. The French expedition arrived off Cartagena in April and began reducing the Spanish defenses. Outlying forts were seized, often with the buccaneers in the vanguard, while the fleet moved up behind in support. Isolated and demoralized, the Spanish fell back on the city. The French deployed and opened fire with powerful 24-pounder and 36-pounder siege mortars, demolishing the city's fortifications. On May 6, 1697, governor Don Diego de los Rios y Quesada surrendered Cartagena. Baron de Pointis carried off all the available wealth, paying the buccaneers at the same rate as his own men (which was a pittance compared to a privateer-style division of plunder). Worried about a powerful English squadron known to be hunting him, de Pontis sailed for home with a treasur worth 20 million Livres in his hold. The buccaneers, upset and angry with their tiny share, returned to the still prostrate city. There they sacked, pillaged, raped and tortured until the residents coughed up another 5 million Livres worth of plunder. Meanwhile de Pointis was intercepted by Neville's English fleet south of Jamaica, but the French outmaneuvered the English at night and escaped. The sack of Cartagena in 1697 was the last great expedition involving buccaneers. It wouldn't have occured without de Pointis' powerful and well- equipped invasion force. Nations were now fielding regular army and navy units in the Caribbean. The pirate's freedom of the seas was at an end. ANOTHER AGE ~~~~~~~~~~~ Around 1500, when Spain discovered the Caribbean basin, Europe was just emerging from the Middle Ages. Most people were peasants, farmers scratching out a bare living form the soil, ruled by a small but powerful class of aristocratic landlords. Some people lived in the towns and cities founded in the Middle Ages, but townspeople remained a small percentage of the population. Their trade and industry only made a marginal impact on the lives of the vast majority. A rare few made their living "on the road" as peddlers, beggars, sailors and thieves. To the majority they were a source of tales, or warnings for children ("Be nice or Black Bart the highway man will eat you for dinner!") The period from 1550 to 1650 is sometimes termed "the Iron Century" because ordinary people's lives became so harsh. Europe's population had been growing rapidly since the early 1400s. Around 1500 the number of people began to exceed the amount of available farmland. Trade and manufacture had developed sufficiently so some peasants with little or no land could do part-time weaving (the source of much clothe in Europe), or move to towns and cities to seek employment in business centered there. These enterprises could absorb only some of the surplus population. So, some young men found employment in mercenary armies that served competing causes in the growing Catholic-Protestant conflict. Unfortunately this employment did more damage than good, for armies then were not as polite as today. Soldiers lived off the land, ruining the farms and livelihoods of the peasants. This destroyed the economic substructure upon which all depended. The intense religious hatreds added an extra measure of ferocity to the struggles, international or civil, causing devastation and death wherever war occurred. As the 16th Century came to an end, overpopulation, war, and the growing taxes brought unprecedented poverty to most areas of Europe. Villages were torn between the lucky few who had enough land to support their families, and the insecure majority whose survival depended on a fortunate growing season and sufficient extra work. Swarms of paupers huddled in slum quarters of towns, while beggars and brigands infested the countryside. Vagabonds, the rootless poor, became an unmanageable problem, straining Europe's charitable institutions and swamping its courts. Brigands were beggars who stole instead of asking. They often fared better as a result. They were just one group of many criminal elements who found in lawlessness an escape from grinding poverty. In towns they practiced burglary and larceny; in the countryside they worked as highwaymen and thieves; and at sea they operated as pirates. Thieves worked alone or in small bands, brigands in moderates sized bands, while pirates operated in larger groups because they needed to crew a sizable ship. Sometimes pirates even worked in fleets of several ships. The Mediterranean had long known pirates, who went so far as to organize mini-kingdoms on the Barbary coast of North Africa. The New World opened new opportunities for piracy. But whether they operated as thieves, brigands, or pirates, all these men struggled to survive in a harsh and unfeeling world by preying on others. They redistributed wealth from those who had it but could not protect it, to those who didn't have it but had the power to seize it. A brigand or pirate might begin his career in order to survive, but he often continued it to prosper. In a society torn by religious hatred and war, with governments still weak and uncertain, success bred success and power respected power. A brigand band could join an army as a group of mercenaries. A pirate might well drift in and out of service of a government. Governments found it expedient to use pirates against their enemies, while pirates found it profitable to ply their trade with a royal seal of approval, a privateer's Letter of Marque. Perversely, a pirate might find himself fighting alongside a Count or an Earl, championing the cause of a king about whose goals and needs he knew little and cared less. However, notable service could bring notable rewards: wealth, land, legitimacy, and perhaps a title of nobility! A man who began as a poverty-stricken nobody might rise to rub elbows with the old aristocratic families who had led the realm for generations. The mounting cycles of war and poverty climaxed in 1618 with the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. What began as a religious strive in Germany became a constitutional struggle as the Habsburgs tried to consolidate their hold on that land. Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and ultimately France intervened to help the German Protestants frustrate this plan. The international melee turned vast areas of Germany into wasteland. Entrepreneurs stepped in where kings and emperors were weak. They created huge mercenary armies that swarmed across the countryside like a plague of locusts. This was the heyday of the mercenary and the freebooter, as soldiers and captains sold their services to the highest bidder and switched sides when the time seemed ripe. But even the greatest of the mercenaries was defeated in battle by a well-organized national army (that of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden), recruited through national conscription and supported by national taxes. The French also used a national army fashioned after the Swedish, and the English Civil War, which raged separately on that tormented isle, was won by Cromwell's "New Model Army" formed on the same principles. As the 17th Century approached its midpoint, the age of the mercenary and pirate was waning in Europe. Within a few decades this new national power and organization would extend into the Caribbean, driving out the buccaneers and pirates. The rise of national governments brought new taxes, oppressive new central administrations, and government bureaucrats whos powers rivaled that of the old nobility. A series of revolutions in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and France, and near-revolutionary constitutional conflicts elsewhere showed how the lower classes and local nobles resisted the new order. But the powerful national governments emerged victorious. No longer would the state tolerate independent agents using the techniques of war. Armies were firmly under royal control, disciplined and supplied from depots. Navies were directed to put down piracy as well as to fight with other countries. The France of Louis XIV, the Sun King, epitomized this new order. Meanwhile, the colonies around the Caribbean were no longer serving as silver mines for the Spanish Empire. Instead, the new English and French colonies, the "Sugar Island", formed the cornerstone of a triangular trade network involving Europe and Africa. This was the most important of many economic developments that helped Europe sustain its growing population in the later part of the 17 and 18th Centuries. Conditions were still hard for many, but prosperity grew as the economy found new forms and new energies. This wealth was little endangered by pirates, for long before it reached its peak the naval vessels and royal courts of the various European kingdoms had all but eliminated piracy from the high seas. The age of the freebooter was gone. The age of the bureaucrat had begun. - Edward Bever, PhD (History)