PART 2 COMMAND CONTROL The command list is utilized to pass instructions to the other helicopters in the flight. Commands given to a section leader apply to all helicopters in thatsection. Helicopters in your section always fly your course, speed and altitude unless instructed to do otherwise. Next Unit All commands applicable to a section leader may also be given to a single helicopter. In this case, the helicopter deviates from the leader's control. Press the Next Unit (n) key to toggle between the helicopters. If the helicopters are flying as part of a single section, the helicopters display in numerical order. If a heavy and light section are both operational, the other section leader displays first, followed in numerical order by the remaining helicopters. Fly To Press the Fly to (f) key to establish a flight path. Up to three waypoints can be placed. This command is applicable to your helicopter. Hold Position Press the Hold Position (h) key to order the section to maintain its present position. The Section maintains its current altitude and heading, but reduces its airspeed to 0. This command can be given to a section at any point; it doesn't cancel existing waypoints. Pressing the key a second time cancels the hold. Upon reaching its destination, the section immediately assumes a hold command. Speed Press the Speed (s) key to modify the section's airspeed. There are three possible settings - slow, medium and fast. Slow speed is 50% of the possible maximum for the current altitude. Medium speed (the default) is 75% of the possible maximum. Fast speed is 100% of the possible maximum. Pressing the key loops through the possible settings. Altitude Press the Altitude (a) key to modify the section's altitude. There are three possible settings - NOE, contour and low. NOE altitude (the default) is 20' higher than your present low altitude limit setting. [Page 76] Contour altitude is 150' higher. Low altitude is 350' higher. Pressing the key loops through the possible settings. Land Press the Land (l) key to order the section to land upon reaching its final waypoint. If no active waypoints exist, the section immediately lands. The section seeks out terrain suitable for a landing in the immediate area. Return to Base Press the Return to Base (b) key to order the section to immediately return to base; all existing waypoints are cancelled. If on a deep strike mission, the section returns to the passage point. The section initiates the default speed and altitude unless ordered otherwise. The section takes the most direct route to the base, and lands upon reaching its destination. This command is applicable to your own helicopter. It sets a single waypoint with your base as the destination. You must initiate the autopilot or head towards the waypoint. Disengage Press the Disengage (d) key to order the section to immediately break contact and move away from all opposing forces. Upon reaching a "safe" position, the section assumes a hold command. This command cancels all existing waypoints. The section disregards this command if not currently in contact with opposing forces. Regroup Press the regroup (g) key to order an independent helicopter to immediately rejoin its section. It takes the most direct route, and initiates default speed and altitude settings. This command cancels all existing waypoints. Weapons Free Press the Weapons Free (w) key to order a section to engage all sighted targets. The section employs the appropriate weapons, if available, based on target type. Pressing the key a second time returns the section's weapons to "hold". Helicopters on "hold" status fly directly to their destinations. The section freely employs defensive measures on either setting. [Page 77] Cargo Drop Press the Cargo Drop (c) key to order the section's cargo carrying helicopters immediately to drop their cargo. The section's UH-60 K/L Blackhawks drop their cargo upon reaching the Primary/Secondary waypoint. COMMUNICATIONS Communication is the key element to any successful operation. Since you're an active pilot in the flight, not some desk jockey, you must rely on your pilots to keep you abreast of developments. During the course of a mission, your pilots communicate key information and status updates. The message include target sightings, reaching destinations and damage updates. Their call sign appears on the screen, along with their message. This enables you to fly your portion of the mission and not constantly check on flight status. When important situations do develop, you can immediately access the Map View to re-evaluate and revise orders as necessary. You can also "jump on their tail" by pressing the Flight Chase View (shift F5) key to directly view the situation. If, for any reason, you are unable to read an entire message, press alt m to redisplay the last message. Strategy It's probably easier to just say I'll do it myself, but combat is a team effort. The commander that best employs flight assets will be the most successful. You could always keep the entire flight with you at all times, but that will limit your options dramatically. Give the other pilots a chance; they'll give you their best. [Page 78] Experience Use your flight to the best of its abilities. Inexperienced pilots may not do exactly what you had in mind. Developing skills and moxie takes time, just as you've probably found out by now. Experience is a measure of missions flown, rank and decorations. Your best pilot will have flown the most missions, is one rank under you, and has a chest full of decorations. This pilot is your best choice for the other section leader. Avoid selecting that wet behind the ears W-01, fresh out of flight training. Don't ask any of them to do more than they're capable of accomplishing. Commands Try to envision yourself flying this leg of the mission; what would you do if you were there? Apply a command stream that accomplishes that image. If you give them poor orders, they'll perform poorly. You're their commander; they look to you for the right measure. The tactics described earlier still apply here. Fly and fight smart! Scouts Scouts play a very useful role as independent helicopters. Send one on ahead to look for enemy units and/or to clear a safe flight path. It's no use sending loaded Blackhawks into totally unfamiliar territory; their loads are just too valuable to squander away. A Kiowa Warrior can also mark targets for Hellfire equipped Apaches, SuperCobras and Blackhawks. The gunships can wait safely behind a hill while the Kiowa Warrior is out looking for some ripe targets. Ambush With the opposing forces constantly on the move, it's easy to stuble across a force occupying an area you thought was clear or just flew through a few minutes ago. It's usually expedient to position a helicopter in covering terrain along any suspected movement paths. Also, a helicopter can be positioned to watch your "back door". This way you can be confident that your means of exit is clear of enemy forces when you need to get out quick. [Page 79] Special Considerations Upon landing, UH-60K/L Blackhawks automatically drop off their passengers, unless at a base or FARP. Be sure they're at the correct location before giving the orders to land. They also automatically pick up and passengers, if in the vicinity, when they land. Cargo drops are also automatic. Even though cargo can be successfully dropped without making a landing, it's easier to verify the location by landing first. Of course, if the LZ is "hot", you may be forced to drop the load and get out quickly. [Page 80] AFTER THE MISSION MEASURE OF SUCCESS You've landed, and are relatively safe and secure. The S2 now wants to run through the debriefing. Never an easy read, you can't tell if he's pleased or disappointed. The mission replay indicates how well you did this time out. If you do nothing else, complete the primary and secondary missions, and return safely to your base. If you can manage only one of the two, make it the primary. Destroying additional units is always a plus, but not at the expense of your missions. Stay focused, but flexible. The TF commander has a habit of changing missions. Promotions and decorations are awarded for hitting the assigned missions and returning an intact helicopter to base. Time is also a performance measure. You can't spend the entire day flying just one mission; you need to get in and get out as quick as possible. There's only so many helicopters and pilots available, and more than enough mission to go around. Ditching If you land and abandon your helicopter, every attempt is made to pick you up, but you may be captured by the opposing forces. Naturally, the chance of rescue increases if you're near a base or FARP. The best bet is to make it back to base. It's better to return even if you can't complete your missions. You can always return to fight another day. Campaigns When a campaign is completed, you are advised as to the outcome. This shouldn't be any surprise, you've known the progress all along. The campaign map is routinely updated when you attend briefings. Promotion Successful completion of your assigned mission improves your overall record. An excellent record leads to promotion. However, even in combat, promotions take time. Don't expect a promotion after every mission. As you increase in rank, promotions are even harder to come by. After all, not everyone can be a Brigadier General. A reprimand on your record makes promotion more difficult. Reprimands occur whenever you decline a mission, or you fail to achieve either the primary or secondary mission. On the other hand, decorations for heroism move you to the head of the promotion pack. [Page 81] Battlefield Commissions The TF commander is always on the lookout for pilots with leadership potential If you're selected to receive a commission, you're approached by the TF commander. The choice is yours to make; it's not required. However, accepting the commission does open the door to the exciting world of multiple helicopter flight. The TF commander is persistent. He'll keep after you even if you decline a commission. If you continue decline the offer of a commission, CW4 is the highes rank you can attain. Decorations If you do exceptionally well on a mission, you may be awarded a medal for heroism and valor. Unlike promotions, decorations are based purely on your performance during a single mission. Your curren rank and record have no effect on your chance of getting decorated. In addition to the decorations for heroism and valor, two other decorations can be awarded. The National Defense Service Medal is given for successfully completing training, and the Purple Heart is awarded for wounds received in combat. MISSION REPLAY The mission replay summarizes the key events of your mission. It shows what went well and not so well. It's a learning experience; the next time out apply the lessons learned from this mission. Film Library Upon the completion of a mission, or if you access the mission films through the Squadron Archives, the Film Library panel appears. Here you select the film to view; the last mission flown is always titled "Last Mission". To select a film, position the cursor on the title line and press Selector #1; the selected title highlights. Press "Play" to begin the replay. From this control panel, you may also rename and delete mission films. Remember, if you wish to save the current mission, you must rename "Last Mission" or it'll be lost after the next mission. Once you fill the entire page, the slide bar to the right is used to scroll the film listing. External Viewpoint In this, the default viewpoint, replay displays the actual combat films from your mission. You are there again with your flight, with an "out of body" [Page 82] view of all the action. A short mission summary is displayed at the top of the replay screen. A running list of events is displayed on the panel. This way you can follow along with the action as it happens. Controls Replay uses a "VCR" type panel to control the replay functions. During the Conventional Replay, the Controller is used to position the cursor over a key; press Selector #1 to activate the key. As an alternative, the tab and shift keys can be used to position the cursor. __ Position over and press the /\ \/ |> <| keys (or press directional keys) to adjust the point of view. ~~ Position over and press the | <| <| key (or press the r key) to rewind to the beginning of the replay. _ Position over and press the |_| key (or press the s key) to stop the replay. Position over and press the |> key (or press the p key) to start the replay. Position over and press the |> | key (or press the n key) to fast forward to the next event. Upon reaching the next event, replay automatically shifts into the "play" mode. Position over and press the |> |> key (or press the f key) to fast forward. Position over and press the 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 keys (or press the respective numeric key) to shift the view to that helicopter. If the mission type was "Single", only the "1" key is active. Position over and press the T key (or press the t key) to shift the view to the target. Position over and press the RESUME key (or press alt x) to resume the fight. Position over and press the DEMO key (or press alt y) to activate the Demo Viewpoint. Press alt y to return again to the external viewpoint. Demo Viewpoint The replay takes the "pilot's" viewpoint. In this mode, you view the mission from the pilot's seat. All actions are replayed exactly as they occured in the actual mission. To exit the replay, press alt e, this returns you to the game. To return to the control panel, press alt y. Resume Flight Replay offers one additional exciting feature. You can jump in and take over a flight at any point during the replay! Position the cursor over the Resume key and press Selector #1 (or press alt x). [Page 83] This feature is an excellent combat tool for learning and developing tactics. You can re-fly a tough mission, change your tactics, and observe the impact of a revised plan of attack. Or, you can re-enter another pilot's mission, and see if you can top their results. These "films" are loaded via the squadron archives file. When you re-enter a mission, you are positioned in the #1 helicopter and are now in control with all game controls active. The results of a re-entered mission never affect your record, nore are the results of this "mission" recorded for future viewing. The original replay remains intact. To exit, press alt e; this returns you to the game. FLIGHT PROMOTIONS The pilots in your flight are also eligble for promotions and decorations. The high command makes recommendations as to who should be promoted and who should receive decorations. As the flight commander, you're authorized to accept the recommendations or transfer the awards to other pilots. To change a recommendation, highlight the award and press Selector #1. The award is transferred to the next pilot. Promotions are automatically adjusted to the next higher rank. A pilot can't be promoted to a rank equal to your current rank. Decorations are awarded as presented. When you concur with the recommendations or changes, highlight the Accept key and press Selector #1. REPLACEMENTS If you're ever faced with the unfortunate situation of having lost a pilot in combat, you'll automatically receive a W-01 replacement from the pilot pool. If you're not satisfied with the replacement or you with to change an existing pilot, the pilot replacement screen is provided to make these administrative changes. You may replace the pilot, but the new pilot's rank and decorations are comparable. Highlight the pilot to be replaced, and press Selector #2. Enter the name of the new replacement and then press Selector #1. [Page 84] Page 84 contains a few helicopters firing down on the ground at something... [Page 85] 3. THE HELICOPTER HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT Father of the Helicopter Leonard da Vinci is widely considered to be the "Father of the Helicopter." In the late 15th Century, da Vinci developed the first theories of flight, and designed a screw-like rotary-wing aircraft that operated on the principles he developed. Da Vinci's Helix had a large, screw-like rotary wing. Da Vinci had theorized that air has a "substance", or density, and that a lifting force could be generated by pushing down against it; it would, theoretically, bore through the substance of the air like an auger bit through wood. While a full-size version of da Vinci's Helix never flew, some small working models were produced. The problems that faced da Vinci's craft would confront every would-be-inventor of a self-propelled helicopter. The power plant and structure of the aircraft needed to be kept low, the torque produced by the spinning propellers had to be counteracted, and the craft had to be controlled. The Helicopter Takes Shape The next significant step toward rotary-winged flight occurred in 1783, at the World's Fair in Paris. Two Frenchmen, Launoy and Bienvenu, created a toy rotary-wing craft with four feathered propellers. The propellers were placed on either end what was basically a stick, and turned independently of one another in opposite directions. The toy, drive by a wind-up bent-bow system, managed to fly up to altitudes of seventy feet, and provided a great deal of inspiration for other inventors. But they still lacked a propulsion plant strong enough to generate the lift needed to get larger craft airborne. It would be nearly another hundred years before inventors would have any significant successes. In 1862, another Frenchman named Ponton D'Amecourt developed a steampowered helicopter. The craft had coaxial propellers, counter-rotating wings spinning about the same axis. The helicopter's steam engine was made of aluminium, and [Page 86] weighed only four pounds. While the power-to-weight ratio of the craft was still too low for it to get airborne, it bobbed and bounced on the ground on the threshold of flight. This alone encouraged inventors to continue. By 1870, an Italian inventor, Enrico Forianni, met with some success. His steam-powered coaxial helicopter weighed only six and a half pounds, but it managed to fly up to heights of 40 feet and for a duration of 20 minutes. Rotary flight, albeit unmanned rotary flight, was a reality. But the hurdles to manned flight - the power-to-weight ratio and control of flight - still remained. The first breakthrough in manned rotary flight would not come until 1907, four years after the Wright brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. The development of internal combustion engines had finally produced a power plant with a sufficient power-to-weight ratio to be effective, and yet another Frenchman, Paul Cornu, set out to take advantage of that new technology. His craft had dual rotors, one placed forard and the other at the rear of the fuselage. Each rotor measured twenty feet in diameter. The rotors were connected by drive belts to a 24-horsepower internal combustion engine. For control of flight, Cornu had placed tilted vanes below each rotor. The belts slipped and the rotors spun unevenly, but Cornu's helicopter became airborne. His flight was short, and he only managed to rise a few feet above the ground, but he had flown! Many other helicopter designs followed; but for the next ten years, few met with any greater success than Cornu's. Control remained the greatest problem. And while World War I had a drastic effect on the evolution of the airplane, it produced few advances in powered rotary-wing flight. The 1920s saw two major step forward in rotary wing aircraft design. The first was in 1922, when Raul Pateras, an Argentinean, built (with the backing of the French military) a coaxial helicopter with controlled-pitch propellers. The controllable pitch of the rotor blades while in flight increased the maneuverability, and the craft also demonstrated the effect of autorotation - allowing the rotors to spin freely in unpowered flight to slow descent. The Autogiro The second major step forward came not in the form of a helicopter, but from an entirely different aircraft. Juan de la Cierva, a Spanish airplane [Page 87] designer, decided to investigate rotary winged flight in 1924, and soon after unveiled an entirely new type of aircraft - the autogiro. Rather than using a powered rotary wing for lift, the autogiro has a freely rotating overhead wing that is allowed to windmill. The forward motion of the aircraft through the air, generated by the thrust of a conventional propeller, causes the rotor to spin and generate lift. Consequently, the autogiro cannot hover; but it can take off and land in a substantially smaller area than conventional aircraft. In 1928, de la Cierva flew his autogiro across the English Channel, attaining an airspeed of nearly 100 miles an hour. The autogiro found its way into the hands of the military in limited numbers, mostly for evaluation purposes. One was the first rotary aircraft flown off a ship, launched from the carrier USS Langley on September 23, 1931; another was evaluated by the Marine Corps during operations in Nicaragua in 1932. Admiral Richard E. Byrd used an autogiro during his exploration of the Antarctic in 1933 and 1934, and the Army tested several autogiros between 1935 and 1938. But all of these craft were "of-the-shelf" civilian models, and little more [Page 88] was done with the craft. Some military applications, such as antisubmarine warfare and artillery spotting, were noted, but there was little real interest in further development; its low payload capacity and its inability to take off vertically made it unsuitable for what the military had in mind. World War II The Second World War accelerated the development of helicopters dramatically, especially in Germany. The first truly practical helicopter, the Focke- Achgelis Fa61, was built for the Third Reich by Dr. Heinrich Karl Johann Focke, and flew for the first time on June 26,1936 (even though he had been marked by the Nazis as being "politically unsafe"). The Fa61 was a single-seat aircraft, with side-by-side threebladed rotors and a conventional propeller for forward thrust. Both the rotors and the propeller were powered by a single 160 horsepower engine. The craft proved to be difficult to fly at first; eventually, it was mastered by Hanna Reitsch, one of Germany's most respected test pilots. In February of 1938, she flew the Fa61 in the Berlin Deutchlandhall sports arena, demonstrating the helicopter's incredible handling characteristics. She later described the experience as "intoxicating." Reitsch and the Fa61 went on to set numerous world records for rotary flight between 1937 and 1939, proving the practicality and reliability of the helicopter once and for all. Among its records were a top speed of 77 miles per hour, a distance of 143 miles, and an altitude of 11,243 feet. While Dr. Focke did not intend the helicopter for military applications, the Nazis had other ideas. Another German, Anton Flettner, built what is considered to be the world's first military helicopter - the F1 282 Kolibri. The Kolibri had twin counter-rotating propellers that turned in synchronization, their planes of rotation intermeshing. Flettner's Kolibri flew for the first time in 1940, and by 1942 was operational on German [Page 89] airships and escorts in the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Baltic Seas. Eventually a modification of the Kolibri was used for antisubmarine warfare. Another Focke design, the Fa 233 Drache, was the world's first transport helicopter. The Drache, which carried six passengers and could carry a cargo load suspended from a cable, was tested extensively for use as a general purpose transport for mountain troops. Allied bombing raids destroyed all but seven, and by 1945 only three remained serviceable. These were formed into the first (and only) WWII Luftwaffe helicopter squadron, Transportstaffel 40. While more Fa 233's were built, only one additional helicopter was ever completed. At the end of the war, only two operational helicopters remained. In the United States, Igor Sikorsky's Sikorsky Aircraft Company received a contract from the U.S. Army for a two-passenger observation helicopter. Sikorsky had earlier demonstrated a prototype helicopter, the VS-300, and the success of that aircraft had finally drawn the interest of the Army back to rotary-winged flight. In January of 1942, Sikorsky's Army prototype, the XR-4, flew for the first time. By the time it was delivered to the Army on May 17, 1942, it had broken practically all of the existing worl records for helicopter operations. The U.S. military was now thoroughly convinced of the helicopter's potential. The XR-4's design, like Sikorsky's VS-300 before it, utilized a single rotor with three blades, and a tail rotor to counteract the torque of the main rotor This design set the standard for the great majority of American helicopters that followed it. By the end of WWII, over four hundred Sikorsky helicopters of three designs were flying for the Army, Navy and Coast Guard, and for the British Navy and RAF. They served as scouts, delivered mail to ships at sea, and served as rescue craft during carrier operations. In addition, the growing need for antisubmarine platforms gave the helicopter an active combat mission in fleet operation; with the advent of the dipping sonar in the mid-1940s, the helicopter became a viable sub-hunter. In 1944, the helicopter saw its first duty as a combat search and rescue (C-SAR) and medevac craft, during operations in Burma. In April of that year, Sikorsky R-4 helicopters attached to the U.S. Army's First Air Commando Group [Page 90] based at Hailakandi, India, were fitted with fuel tanks from fixed-wing aircraft to extend their range, and were flown behind enemy lines to rescue the crew and passengers of a light British medevac aircraft. The mission was a success, and the R-4 was called upon almost daily afterwards for other SAR missions. The Malayan Emergency The first real conflict in which helicopters were used extensively was the Malayan Emergence, a counter-insurgency war fought by the British for twelve years beginning in 1948. By the time the Korean War began, the British already had nearly forty thousand troops fighting a guerilla war against Chinesebacked communist insurgents. British forces depended heavily on helicopters in this jungle war, for medical evacuation, troop transport, observation and reconnaissance. The operational flexibility of helicopters, along with their ability to deploy and retrieve troops in jungle terrain, proved their worth in combat beyond a shadow of a doubt. The Korean War The Korean War was to U.S. helicopter aviation what the Malayan Emergency was to the British. During the course of the war, the helicopter was used by all four branches of the armed forces, and tactics were developed for their use. While the helicopter was primarily used for transport, medevac, search and rescue, and reconnaissance by all of the service, there was some unofficial experimentation with gunship tactics. For the first time, helicopters became a threat to enemy troops. The first shots fired in anger from a helicopter were from a U.S. Navy helicopter in January, 1951. Lieutenant, j.g.John W. Thorton and his crewman, Petty Officer Whitaker, experimented with light attack helicopter tactics by firing .45 caliber pistols and carbine rifles and dropping grenades from their HO3S-1 on North Korean troops. If fragmentation grenades were not available, LTJG Thorton would obtain percussion grenades and tape nails to them, so they could "nail them to a tree." These tactics did not endear Thorton to the North Koreans, nor to his fellow pilots. The North Koreans quickly learned that the helicopter was a potential threat, and soon were firing upon all they saw. The HO3S-1 had been the subject of another experiment in helicopter armament a year earlier, at Lakehurst Naval Air Station in New Jersey. [Page 91] Mechanics at Helicopter Utility Squadron One (HU-1) attempted to install swivel gun mounts with .30 and .50 caliber machine guns in the doors of a helicopter. Unfortunately, the airframe wasn't strong enough to support the guns, and when they were fired, they nearly ripped the sides of the aircraft off. The experiment was only slightly ahead of its time. The Army experimented with the idea of an armed helicopter during the war. The need for armament aboard helicopters became apparent when the H-19 troop transport helicopter was deployed to Korea - it proved to be extremly vulnerable during troop assault landings. The Army tried mounting a bazooka on an H-13 helicopter in 1950, with little success; three years later, the Army tried a grenade launcher, with the same result. American experience with the helicopter during Korea led to the development of the "Air Cavalry" concept. General Matthew B. Rideway, who had seen the importance of the helicopter in Korea, reorganized Army aviation in January 1955, and laid the foundation for the modern "Air Cav". Accompanying this new organizational concept was that of a "helicopter gunship". In 1956, the Army began testing various types of helicopter armament again, with the goal of providing an effective for providing suppressive fire during assault landings. Air Cavalry units experimented with .30 and .50 caliber machine guns, rockets, and varioius cannons. Eventually, these experiments led to the formation of an aerial combat recon company in 1958. The French would be the first to apply the gunship concept under actual combat conditions. During the bloody French-Algerian War, the French Army and Air Force applied the American experience with helicopter armament to their Vertol H-21's twin rotor helicopters originally built for troop transport. The French used several mixes of armament, from .30 and .50 caliber machine guns to 37mm rockets and 20mm cannon in their war against the Muslim rebels. The French also armored their helicopters, using self-sealing gas tanks, and fiberglass armor plating around engine compartments and the cockpit. After adding weaponry and armor to their helicopters, the French did not lose any helicopters to ground fire. The French also pioneered the development of a helicopter-launched anti-tank missile, in 1958. While the French had some success with the use of helicopters during the [Page 92] French-Algerian War, in the end they were forced to quit Algeria, granting their former colony independence. The helicopter alone could not win a guerilla war. Still, the utility of the armed helicopter had been proven, and important lessons had been learned about its employment. But the real test of "Gunship" weapons and tactics would come with the escalation of a war in another former French Colony - Vietnam. The Vietnam War The Vietnam War has often been called the "Helicopter War" because of the pivotal role that helicopters played in all aspects of the conflit. U.S. forces depended heavily on the helicopter because of its utility and flexi- bility in an environment similar to that the British faced in Malaya during the early '50s. During the conflict, more helicopters, and more types of helicopters would be used than ever before. Some eighteen types of helicopters were flown by U.S. pilots over the course of the war (many of which are still in service today in some capacity). The war also saw the first widespread use of gas turbinepowered helicopters in all facets of operations. The first gas turbine-powered helicopter deployed to Vietnam became a symbol of the war itself - the UH-1 Iroquois, more commonly knows as the Huey. First delivered to the Army in 1959, the Huey was commonly referred to early on as the "helicopter ambulance," despite its multi-role design. The Huey was remarkably successful in all of its roles, and eventually over nine thousand were built - many are still in service. The UH-1B Huey became the first true helicopter gunship. It was built with universal wiring and "hard points" for the attachment of various weapons systems. Three weapons were used by the UH-1B: the XM-6 quad (four 7.62mm machine guns and four grenade launchers, mounted in pairs on each side of the ship), the XM-3 rocket pod system (two pods of 24 2.75 inch rockets), and the SS-11 guided anti-tank missile (three guided missiles mounted on each side of the helo). While the XM-3 and SS-11 systems were not available early, the XM-6 quad was almost universally in use as early as 1962, giving the Huey a lethal punch. Huey 1A's were also equipped with weaponry, though their lower turbine power and lack of universal wiring limited the range of weapons available. They were equipped with two fixed rocket pods and two 30-caliber machine guns, mounted on the skids of the aircraft. [Page 93] The first Huey 1A's and 1B's to arrive in Vietnam were organized into the Utility Tactical Transport Helicopter Company (UTTHCO). The 1B's proved to be much more flexible in meeting the needs of the local commanders. Almost as important as the 1B's better armament mix was its higher shaft power, essential for maneuverability in the high humidity of Vietnam. The gunships provided light close-in fire support for assault landings of airborne troops, and were essential to the evolution of the "airmobility" strategy of the U.S. Army. The "airmobility" concept emerged in the early sixties as a product of a study by a board of Army officers convened by Secretary of Defense Robert MacNamara. The Army Tactical Mobility Requirements Board, also known as the "Howze Board" (for its chairman, General Hamilton H. Howze, an experienced Airborne commander), recommended the substitution of helicopters for a large amount of the Army's ground transportation. All Army units would be equipped with 360 air vehicles to every 2000 wheeled land vehicles. The committee also recommended the formations of specialized, completely airmobile "air assault divisions". The concept of Air Assault Division was tested by a skeleton division formed at Fort Benning, Georgia, in 1964. During exercises in North and South Carolina, the division proved itself against the 82nd Airborne. The Secretary of Defense recognized the effectiveness of such a unit, and gave the Army the approval to proceed with organization of the first airmobile division. The division selected for this honor was the famed 1st Cavalry Division. On July 28, 1965, President Johnson ordered the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) to Vietnam. As the war excalated, and helicopters took increasing amounts of ground fire from heavy antiaircraft weapons, it became apparent that a dedicated helicopter gunship was needed. The UH-1B, while highly successful, was limited in its capabilities - it was, after all, just a modified logistics helicopter. Bell helicopter had foreseen the Army's need, and was preparing to meet it. In 1966, the Army ordered its first true gunship - the Bell AH-1 Huey Cobra. The Cobra was based on the UH-1B, but had some major innovations. The airframe was narrow, presenting a very small head-on target. The very look of the helicopter suggested its purpose - it was death from above for the enemy. [Page 94] The first Huey Cobra went to Vietnam in 1968. Perhaps their most famous role in the war was the operations conducted by AH-1's over the Ho Chi Minh Trail, ambushing North Vietnamese and Viet Cong supply trains. It was during these ambushes that Cobra pilots developed tactics like "Cobra Stacking," flying one above the other to maximize the amount of ordnance delivered on a small area. But the AH-1s also earned their keep in the troop transport escort role as well, protecting assault helicopter landings and providing "instantaneous fire suppression". The Marine Corps found them vital to carrying out their mission. With a broad range of weaponry, high speed and high maneuverability, the Cobra proved to be a very important asset to American field commanders; its success insured the long line of gunships that followed it. Many other nations have copied it, and the Army and Marine Corps use modifications of the AH-1 (particularly the AH-1W SuperCobra) to this day. Afghanistan Vietnam was the proving ground for American gunships; for the Soviets, Afghanistan served a similar role. While the Soviets had been pioneers in heavy lift helicopter design and construction, and had been arming helicopters since they early 50s, their first helicopter gunship was not introduced until 1972. The Mi-24 Hind-A was really a heavily armed and highly mobile transport helicopter. It is believed that the Hind-A was designed to act as its own fire support during troop insertions; the Soviet staff believed at the time that they could not afford a large number of single-purpose helicopters. Soviet attitudes about gunships changed over time, and the Hind went through a series of modifications. The Hind-D was equipped with a nosemounted gatling gun. Still, the Hind retained its transport capability; the Hind-E, introduced in 1976, can carry up to ten troops with its full weapon load. With its weaponry and heavy armor, the Hind is comparable to a very fast and meneuverable flying armored personnel carrier. In December of 1979, the Soviets invaded Afghanistan under the pretenses of an invitation by the Aghani government. By mid-January, the Soviets had more than 75,000 troops in the country. [Page 95] The Hind gunship was the workhorse of Soviet aviation in Afghanistan; nearly 200 of them were deployed by January of 1983. The Hind served in a role similar to the Cobra in Vietnam, escorting troop transports in assault on guerilla concentrations. But like the French in Algeria and the Americans in Vietnam, the Soviets faced an enemy that enjoyed considerable freedom of movement, superior knowledge of the terrain and had the will to fight. The Mujahadeen also had U.S. made stinger anti-aircraft missiles, a great threat to the Soviet helicopter forces. One Soviet soldier said after the war, "You could tell when a landing zone was really hot by the number of assault troops they put on a helicopter. The more men a (Hind) had to land, the longer it was vulnerable to guerilla fire. If you had four or five to a helicopter, it wasn't too bad. If you had two or three to a helicopter, you knew it was really bad." As the therat to Soviet helicopters increased, more and more infrared decoys (essentially flares) were carried to draw away the Stingers of the Mujahadeen. And the Soviets also reportedly deployed chemical weapons in large numbers from Hinds. Grenada - Operation Urgent Fury In 1983, the U.S. and a coalition of Caribbean States invaded the isle of Grenada to overthrow the oppressive Marxist military junta that had recently taken power. During the invasion, code-named Operation Urgen Fury, U.S. Army and Marine forces met stiff resistance from Cuban "advisor" forces, and fought a heavily armed and fortified force holed in the island's fortress prison. AH-1 Cobra gunships proved their versatility and, unfortunately, their vulnerability during engagements with these force. Army Cobras and Mrine SeaCobras provided close air support and assaulted the fortress with TOW missilis, but two of them were lost to ground fire. Other Marine helicopter forces were used in the mission to rescue American students at the St. George's Medical School. These Marine Sea Knights were used as well for "vertical envelopment" assaults on the island in the early stages of the operation. Lasting only a few days, the operation is not considered to be one of the high points in U.S. military history. It's generally felt that U.S. forces will [Page 96] ill-prepared for the level of opposition, and rushed into the operation with too little planning. In any event, its effects went a long way to shape the future of helicopter operations. The Apache is Born In the early 70s, the U.S. Army sought a heavy gunship in the form of the AH-56 Cheyenne. The program was cancelled, however, and for the remainder of the decade, the only heavy helicopter gunships in the U.S. inventory were on paper. The Cobra was called upon to fill the gap. The 70s saw an increased emphasis on the anti-armor capability of the helicopter gunship. With the addition of the TOW missile to the Cobra (and later the SuperCobra), and similar weapons to the helicopters of other nations the gunship was becoming a real "force multiplier", with greater anti-armor capability than most ground units. In 1976, the Hughes Aircraft design for the all-weather heavy helicopter gunship, the AH-64 Apache. It would be stuck in development for another six years before the production line got rolling. In the meantime, the U.S. invaded Grenade in 1983. The Cobra provided the only dedicated gunship capabilities available at the time. Now fully operational, the Apache is the front-line anti-armor aircraft of the U.S. Army. The AH-64 marks the true beginning of a new generation of helicopter gunships - highly automated, heavily armed, and capable of combat in all weather, night or day. While the airframe is essentially a conventional helicopter, the advanced electronic systems about the Apache make it the link to future helicopter gunships. It is being considered for a number of other mission areas, including anti - ship missions. There is still a great deal over debate as to which type of helicopter technology should be the basis of the next generation of gunship. Panama - Operation Just Cause In the early months of 1989, relations between the U.S. government and the regime of General Manuel Noriege in Panama were rapidly deteriorating, and by the end of spring, events had reached a flash-point. After a number of violent incidents, including the killing of an off-duty American soldier by Panamanian Defense Force (PDF) troops, the crisis escalated, and the United States mounted an invasion of Panama to remove General Noriege and put the elected president of Panama in power. Operation Just Cause, as the invasion [Page 97] was called by the military, lasted only a few days, but it demonstrated the lethality of modern weapons. Operation Just Cause saw the first use of Apache helicopters in actual combat. AH-64A Apaches were used in the attack on the PDF Commendancia in downtown Panama City - the helicopters were used against targets on individual floors of the building. Ground based laser designators were utilized to pinpoint the targets for the deadly accurate Hellfire missiles. While, there was no opposition to U.S. helicopters during the operation, the Apache proved itself an effective weapon nonetheless. The Persian Gulf - Operations Desert Storm and Sabre The Apache would get its first real test on the battlefield during the quick and bloody war with Iraq in January and February of 1991. On August 5, 1990, Saddam Hussein's army invaded the city-state of Kuwait, and Hussein proclaimed its annexation. The United States quickly mobilized a coalition of nations to come to the defense of Saudi Arabia, and began putting pressure on Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. By January, the United States had completed the largest deployment of troops since Vietnam, and was ready to take back Kuwait by force, With the aid of the British, Italian, French, Saudi and Kuwaiti air forces, an air offensive was launched on January 16 against Iraqi forces in Kuwait and Iraq. Apache gunships played a significant role in the early air campaign, attacking Iraqi positions in Kuwait and Iraq. The first mission for the AH-64 came during the first hours of the war. On the night of January 17, Apaches were sent in to take out two Iraqi electronics installations near the Saudi-Iraqi border. The Apaches launched Hellfire missiles at several targets in Kuwait and Iraq, including mobile air defense sites and electronic sites. All objective targets were destroyed. In some cases, it was reported that Special Forces troops provided forward laser designation for Hellfires launched by Apache gunships. The night-fighting abilities of the Apache were used heavily during the first phase of the war. Apaches were used against a variety of fortified targets during night operations, including Iraqi artillery batteries and radar sites. Iraqi forces attempted to begin the ground war on their own terms in early February, by invading the Saudi coastal city of Kafji. Apache helicopters took [Page 98] part in a night time assault on the Iraqi armored forces there, and during combat accidentally fired on U.S. armored vehicles, killing two American soldiers. This incident highlights the hazard of the modern battlefield, where smoke, fire and darkness can make it difficult to separate the enemy from friendlies on the ground. With allied air superiority established, Apache gunships and other helicopter forces raided the Iraqi rear at will. On February 20, OH-58D Kiowa Warriors and AH-64A Apaches destroyed "fifteen to thirty" Iraqi bunkers in Kuwait, and 421 Iraqi soldiers surrendered to them. Only one US serviceman was killed in the operation. In the early hours of February 24, a combined allied air-ground offensive began. The operation, code named Desert Sabre, lasted 100 hours, and nearly completely destroyed the Iraqi armed forces in and near Kuwait. Apache and Cobra gunships played an important part in the offensive, taking part in some of the largest armored battles since World War Two. In fact, the first shots fired during the operation were by Apache gunships. The 1st Marine Division was assigned one of the more difficult missions of the offensive - a frontal assault on Iraqi defensive lines in Kuwait. After punching through Iraqi fortifications, the division pushed on toward Kuwait City. In a battle with an Iraqi armored brigade and mechanized infantry brigade near the Burquan oil fields, Marine AH-1W SuperCobras and ground forces destroyed about 30 enemy vehicles. This battle proved to be only a prelude to the tank battle that would follow at Kuwait International Airport, where an estimated 310 Iraqi tanks were destroyed. To the west, the 101st Airborne began a heliborne assault into Iraq, with over 460 Blackhawk, Apache and other helicopters. Their operation, nicknamed "Cobra", severed Iraqi roads along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and cut off the only Iraqi escape route to the north. On February 28, the operation ended, having taken over 80,000 Iraqi POWs and having destroyed or "rendered ineffective" at least 40 of the 42 Iraqi divisions. No US aircraft were downed during the last phase of the war - a tribute to the level of organization planning employed and to the men and women that took part in the operation The operation more than reaffirmed the role of the helicopter in modern combat operations. [Page 99] The U.S. Army Today, the Army deploys its helicopters as integral parts of nearly every type of division, from light infantry to heavy armor. As a result, the battlefield commander of any Army formation will have some "organic air support" within his assets. The highest concentration of helicopters of all types is within the airborne and air assault divisions; within a typical air assault division, for example, there is one full squadron of air cavalry and an aviation brigade consisting of eight helicopter battalions. The air cavalry squadron's primary missions are "airmobility" and reconnaissance, so its aircraft will be of the troop transport variety - the UH-60 Blackhawks and probably a few UH-1 Hueys. In addition, the squadron will have some AH-1 Cobra gunships for escort and air reconnaissance. A squadron will usually have about 950 soldiers assigned to it; 70 commissioned officers, 100 warrant officers and 780 enlisted men. These personnel are divided among the squadron's four "troops" and headquarters "troop." A single troop of air cavalry will have about 200 men assigned, with 15 commissioned officers and 32 warrant officers among them. The aviation brigade within an air assault division is made up of some 1000 personnel, and is broken down into four mission groups: assault, medium lift, command, and attack. Two assault helicopter battalions are dedicated to the combat troop transport mission, and arre equipped with UH-60's. The medium lift helicopter battalion, equipped with CH-47 Chinook cargo helicopters, provides logistical air support for the division, while the command helicopter battalion provides administrative, scouting, and command and control support for the division commander with its UH-1 Hueys and OH-58 Kiowa scouts. The other four battalions of helicopters in the aviation brigade are attack helicopter battalions. These units are equipped with a mixture of aircraft, including AH-64 Apaches, OH-58 Kiowas and probably some AH-1S SuperCobras. These units are manned by some 20 commissioned officers, 44 warrant officers, and 177 enlisted men per battalion. In addition to these air assets, the division will also have an air ambulance company assigned to its medical battalion, equipped with UH-60 and UH-1 helicopters and dedicated to air medical evacuation. The number and type of helicopters that are assigned to a unit may vary with the theater of operation that they are assigned to and their level of readiness. [Page 100] There are large numbers of helicopters considered "obsolete" for front line troops that have been widely spread through the Army's aviation reserve units. As demonstrated during Operations Desert Shield, Storm & Sabre, these units may quickly find themselves on or near the front line of any conflict of arms. The number and type of helicopters assigned to a mission group during operations will also vary widely, depending on the theater of operations, the mission objective, and other forces deployed in the area. For example, a formation of Apaches may be supported by Special Forces units on the ground (with laser designators for their Hellfire missiles), or they may need a Kiowa scout configured for laser designation to accompany them if there are no forward forces to support them. The terrain, battlefield conditions, and weather may all be factors in deciding the number and type of aircraft to assign to any specific mission. [Page 101] FLYING THE HELICOPTER Flying a helicopter is a lesson in the physics of vectors. It places a great demand on the ability of the pilot to simultaneously control each of the factors affecting the flight of his aircraft. The following material only begins to scratch the surface of the intricacies of rotary-wing flight. The Basic Forces The four basic forces, or vectors, that act on all aircraft are gravity (which pulls the craft down), lift (which pushes it up), thrust (which moves the craft horizontally), and drag (resistance against thrust). These four forces, and to what degree they act on an aircraft determine if and how well if flies. Changing vectors that act on an aircraft and, consequently, change its flight characteristics. Lift, Thrust and the Helicopter Helicopters and airplanes both get their lift from an airfoil - a shape that creates lift from relative motion through the air. An airfoil is shaped so that air moving across the top of it must travel farther than air crossing along its bottom; this creates a condition known as the Venturi Effect, in which an area of low air pressure is created above the airfoil. As a result, the airfoil is drwan upward into the low pressure area, creating a lifting force. Conventional airplanes depend on the relative motion of air across their fixed wings, caused by forward motion, to create the lift necessary for them to get and ramain airborne. As a result, lift for an airplane follows the thrust of its engines; the more thrust available, the more lift an airplane can get out of its wings, or the less wing surface it needs to generate that lift. Helicopters, on the other hand, get all of their lift and thrust from one source - the rotor blades; these are the helicopter's "wings". Since the helicopter spins its lifting surfaces through the air, it creates the relative motion necessary to generate lift without having to move the whole helicopter through the air. This is why helicopters can hover and maneuver at low speeds. Unlike the wing of an airplane, the blades of a helicopter's rotor are symmetrical - the top and bottom of each blade is shaped the same. Thus, if they were allowed to spin perfectly flat, they would provide no lift at all. The difference in surface area needed to create lift is achieved by changing [Page 102] the pitch, or angle of the blades. By increasing the tilt of the rotor blades, a helicopter can essentially take a bigger "bite" out of the air and create more lift. The helicopter's directional thrust - the force that moves it horizontally - is created by tilting the plane of the rotor blades' spin. When the rotor is tilted, it pulls the helicopter in the direction of the tilt, as well as providing lift. There are four basic configurations for helicopter rotors. The most common is what the Britis call "penny and farthing" - the single overhead rotor with a smaller stabilizing tail rotor. The smaller rotor counteracts the torque generated by the main rotor. Another common rotor configuration is the twin tandem - two rotor, one forward and one aft. The rotors revolve in opposite directions to counter act each other's torque. The twin side-by-side is not very common among military helicopters. In this configurations, the rotors are mounted on the side of the helicopter, and often intermesh. Several commercial helicopters manufactured by Kaman used this design. The coaxial rotor configuration is most commonly used by Soviet helicopter designers, and can be seen in the Hormone, Helix and the new Hokum helicopters. Two counter-rotating sets of rotor blades revolve about the same axis, counteracting each other's torque. Dissymetry and Asymmetry of Lift Since a helicopter's rotor blades spin about an axis, the relative speed of air over the rotor blades is slower toward the inside of the blade and faster toward the tip of the blade. This means that a greater amount of lift will be created at the tips of the blades, so the blades will tend to bend up at the ends. This phenomena is known as dissymetry of lift. Also, if the helicopter is moving forward, one side of the rotor (the side spinning toward the direction of movement) will have a higher relative air [Page 103] speed than the other (spinning away from the direction of movement). This effect is called asymmetry of lift. The effect, first noted by Juan de la Cierva during his development of the autogiro in the 1920's, tends to make rotary-winged aircraft roll to one side unless it is compensated for. In most cases, helicopter designers have adjusted to this effect by hinging the blades, allowing them to rise slightly while they spin forward. Torque Since the helicopter's rotor blades are spinning, another force is exerted on the helicopter - torque. When a helicopter has only one rotor, the torque generated by that rotor tends to turn the helicopter in a direction opposite of the spin of the rotor blades. This is counteracted in most helicopters by a tail rotor, which pushes back against the torque. In helicopters with two rotor blades, the rotors spin in opposite directions and the torque is cancelled out. Torque can also be used to the helicopter's advantage. Torque, in conjunction with the tail rotor, can be used to help turn the helicopter in flight, and pivot the helicopter about its axis when it's hovering. [Page 104] Blade Stall and Air Compressibility There are two properties of helicopter flight which significantly limit the top speed of all helicopters. The first of these is called blade stall. As a helicopter accelerates its forward flight, its rotor tilts forward, adding thrust. As it does so, the angle of attack, or the angle of the blades in releation to the direction of flight of the "retreating" blades becomes steeper. When the helicopter exceeds its maximum speed, this angle becomes too great, and the retreating blades stall - they cease to provide lift - just as an airplane stalls when flying at too low a speed. The second speed-limiting factor affecting helicopters is the compressibility of air. The faster the rotor spins, the greater the airspeed of the advancing blades; when the relative speed of the advancing rotor blades exceeds the speed of sound, a wave of compressed air, known as a shock wave, forms in front of the blades, increasing the drag on the blades and possibly decreasing lift. [Page 105] The Controls A helicopter requires both hands (and both feet) on the controls at all times. Helicopters are controlled in flight by three pilot "inputs": the cyclic and collective sticks (which occupy the hands), and the rudder pedals (which are controlled by the feet of the pilot). The cyclic controls the "attitude" of the helicopter - its direction and degree of tilt. This affects the horizontal direction and speed of flight, by adjusting the direction of thrusts from the rotor. Direction of flight as controlled by the cyclic is independent of heading (the direction the helicopter is pointing); this enables a helicopter to fly forward, backward or sideways. The collective controls the lifting and thrusting force of the rotor blades by altering their pitch - taking a bigger or smaller bite out of the air. While the helicopter is in a hover, the collective controls the vertical thrust (lift) of the helicopter. The collective is often combined with, and always used in conjunction with the engine throttle, to adjust the engine's power to the demand of the collective. The rudder pedals control the heading of the helicopter - the direction it points in. Using the pedals, a pilot can turn a helicopter about the axis of its rotor blades while in a hover. Using the foot pedals in combination with the cyclic control when the helicopter is in forward flight enables it to make a very tight turn. Hovering To hover a helicopter, the cyclic must be held at center, so that the helicopter does not gain airspeed in any direction. The collective controls keep the helicopter at a constant altitude, while the rudder pedals keep the helicopter pointed in one direction. Since the air is a dynamic environment, the pilot must constantly adjust these controls to maintain the hover. When a helicopter is in a hover or in slow forward flight close to the ground, it creates an effect known as ground cushion. Air forced down by the rotors cannot escape quickly and is compressed between the helicopter and the ground. This, in turn, increases the efficiency of the helicopter's engine and rotor blades. [Page 106] Accelerating Forward To accelerate a helicopter forward from a hover, the pilot pushes the cyclic forward and pulls up on the collective. More lift is generated by the rotors as the collective is pulled up, and this lift is converted to forward thrust as the rotor (and the helicopter) is tilted forward by the collective. As the helicopter shifts from a hover to forward flight, the helicopter settles toward the ground. This is because of a slight loss of lift as some of the helicopter's lift is converted to thrust, and as it "slips off" the ground cushion. But when the helicopter has gained some forward momentum, it also gains what is called "translational lift" - the additional lift generated by the relative motion created in horizontal flight. As the helicopter accelerates forward, the translational lift grows. However, this additional lifiting efficiency is cancelled out by other effects once the helicopter reaches about 90 kts forward speed. Level Flight When the helicopter is in straight, level flight, the cyclic controls airspeed for the most part, while the collective maintains altitude. When climbing or descending, the cyclic maintains the airspeed of the helicopter while the collective increases or decreases lift as required. Since an increase or decrease in collective often corresponds with an increase or decrease in throttle, the torque of the helicopter may increase or decrease during altitude changes. This means the rudder pedals need to be adjusted constantly to match the torque on the helicopter. Takeoff and Landing Helicopter takeoff usually consists of two maneuvers - going into a hover, and forward, climbing flight. First, the pilot lifts off the ground vertically using increased throttle and collective, maintaining horizontal position as in a hover but adding more collective to pull the aircraft upward. Then, the pilot pushes the cyclic forward and pulls up on the collective to attain airspeed and climb to altitude. Whenever possible, helicopter takeoff should be done into the wind, to prevent drift during takeoff. The pilot should also pick some reference point on the ground to keep his heading steady on during initial acceleration. Landing is essentially a reverse process - descending forward flight to a point above the landing point, and a gradually descending hover to the ground. All descent should be stopped when the helicopter goes into the hover. The helicopter should not be allowed to drift horizontally while touching [Page 107] down, as it could easily tip over. This could lead to the pilot and crew eating pieces of shattered rotor blade. Also, it is important that the collective be handled gently during landing, as too rapid a descent can prove dangerous. At best, a very expensive aircraft is bounced off the ground, and several vertebrae are compressed. "Stepping on the Brakes" There may be occasion where it becomes necessary to rapidly slow down horizontal flight - a large, impassable obstacle ahead, or some other condition that might have a negative impact on the service life of the helicopter. In such a situation, care should be taken by the pilot to maintain altitude and avoid wild changes in heading. Coordinated, simultaneous use of the controls is essential. To "put on the brakes", the pilot lets down on the collective and pulls back on the cyclic at the same time, while adjusting the rudder to prevent a wild swing in heading. As the helicopter slows to the desired speed, the pilot levels the craft by pushing forward on the cyclic (to prevent the helicopter from settling tail-first and hiting the ground) and adjusting the collective (to maintain altitude). [Page 108] HELICOPTER TACTICS One of the great handicaps of helicopter combat is that there is nowhere to hide in the sky. Anti-aircraft artillery (AAA), surface-to-air missiles, helicopters, and ground fire from small automatic weapons can swat a helicopter from the sky. With the wide proliferation of man-portable, high- tech weapons like the Stinger, SA-7 Grail, and SA-14 Gremlin missiles, the open skies are an even more dangerous place for slow-flying helicopters than before. To survive, the pilot must be able to use the unique flight characteristics of the helicopter to his advantage. One of the most commonly used defensive maneuvers for helicopters is nap-of- the-earth (NOE) flying. In this type of flying, the helicopter follows the contour of the earth, in almost all respects becoming a ground vehicle. This type of flight demands a great deal of skill. But if the pilot doesn't hit a tree or hill, he gains a great deal more security on the battlefield from SAMs and AAA. Exposure to fire from enemy units is minimized because the helicopter is masked by the terrain for a majority of its flight, and the helicopter gains a degree of surprise. Helicopter VS. Tanks and Ground Units The maneuverability of helicopters gives them the best of both worlds when it comes to combat with ground forces; they can use the terrain to their advantage, and then fly above it when it becomes an impediment. This ability gives the helicopter gunship the ability to ambush enemy ground forces whenever the terrain permits. Ambush tactics for gunships date back to the Vietnam War, when Huey Cobras patrolled the Ho Chi Minh trail. The most common ambush maneuver is the "pop-up" - the helicopter masks itself behind a tree line, house, or other [Page 109] terrain feature, and then "pops up" from behind its hiding place to deliver the attack. The usual minimum number of helicopters for an ambush attack is three, bu NATO doctrine. A "pop-up" is only necessary to use direct-fire weapons - weapons that require the target to be in a line of sight. With the Apache's Hellfire laser-guided anti-tank missiles, the Apache does not even need to pop up. Another helicopter or a forward observer can designate the target with a laser, and the Apache can fire from cover. Another weapon that offers virtually no exposure time to enemy fire is the sub-munition-type anti-armor system attack. This attack relies on a pattern of multi-purpose bomblets from exploding unguided rockets. The helicopter makes its approach shielded by the terrain, then pulls up and fires, and turns toward the rear, immediately returning to NOE flight to avoid enemy fire. Helicopter VS. Helicopter The first all-helicopter dogfight on record occured during the Iran-Iraq war, when an Iraqi Hind shot down an Iranian Cobra. Even before this event, it was widely assumed that in any large-scale conflict of the future, helicopters would meet other helicopters in air combat. The Soviets have even designed a helicopter for the single purpose of air-to-air combat operations (the Hokum). Helicopter-to-helicopter combat tactics are an evolution of the combat tactics used first by fighter pilots in World War One. The unique maneuvering abilities of the helicopter add some considerations to the equation, but the old problems are essentially the same - how to convert velocity and altitude into a shooting position. [Page 110] If approached from behind, the first instinct of many helicopter pilots is to brake hard to force the enemy to overshoot. To recover from an overshoot, helicopter pilots have developed a maneuver known as the "High Yo-Yo." When the target brakes, the attacker pulls up hard to avoid an overshoot, converting airspeed into altitude, and then maneuvers to the "six-o'clock" position (directly behind the target) and drops down for the attack. Rather than braking hard, a pilot finding himself in front of an oncoming attacker might execute a maneuver known as the "Horizontal Scissors." In this maneuver, the pilot turns hard to one side and reduces forward velocity. The attacker is forced to turn to follow, and the pilot then turns hard in the opposite direction. The attacker is forced to reverse his turn and is forced out in front of the defender, who is now in a position to take a shot. When faced with an attacker in close proximity, a helicopter pilot can use a manevuer developed by the U.S. Marines known as the "Side Flare Quick Stop." The pilot pulls up hard and flares to one side, forcing the attacker to overshoot. Now behind the opponent, the pilot dives down into the six-o'clock position and has the enemy in his sights. When meeting an adversary from an opposite direction, a pilot can use a maneuver known as a "Stern Conversion." The pilot accelerates and performs a hard, banking turn called a "wing-over" (similar to the maneuver used in World War Two movies by pilots turning out of formation for an attack run). The pilot then performs a turning dive into attack position behind the enemy aircraft. [Page 111] As of yet, these tactics are fairly theoretical - none have been truly proven in combat. But it is clear that pilots will use some derivative of the them in any future conflict where helicopters meet over the battlefield. [Page 112] Page 112 is just a few pictures of different "attack" tactics... [Page 113] [Page 114] Page 114 is a pictures of some people loading rockets onto a gunship... [Page 115] 4. EQUIPMENT AND ORGANISATION DATA FORMAT All are expressed in metric measurements. Metric measurements are used because most armies, including the U.S. Army, utilize the metric system. Length, Width, Height, Weight and Diameter Vehicles list fully loaded combat weights. Aircraft list maximum take-off weights. Crew/Pass The "crew" is the normal fighting complement of the vehicle or aircraft - the men who remain aboard in combat situations. While most all vehicles can carry passengers in some form or another, only those that are specifically built for transport, or provide a modicum of cover list passengers. The "passengers" frequently dismount in combat. Engine The horsepower (hp) and type of the main (engine(s). Helicopter engines are rated in "shaft horsepower" (shp). Fixed-wing aircraft engines are rated in "pounds of static thrust" (lb st). "AB" indicates afterburner capability. Max Speed For vehicles, this is maximum rated road speed in kilometers per hour (kph). For aircraft and ships, this is the maximum level speed in knots (kts) at sea level. Rate of Climb For helicopters, this is the vertical rate of climb from hover in feet per second (ft/sec). In most case, the maximum rate of climb is about twice this value. Service Ceiling The maximum attainable altitude with a nominal weapon load. The Rules of Engagement (ROE) for a Theater of Operations (TO) normally limit the maximum altitude to a much lower value. Main Gun The size and type of the main gun, if any. All guns are rifled unless "SB" (smoothbore) is indicated. For guns other than machine-guns (MG), the number of rounds carried (rds) is also indicated. Missiles The name and type of missile carried. Aircraft and ships will also list the predominate non-missile weapons. Please note that other weapon systems could also be carried. Weapon Load For aircraft, this is the maximum weapon load. More often than not, aircraft fly with less than their rated maximum load. [Page 116] Sec Guns Many vehicles mount one or more secondary weapons, usually machine-guns, for local ground and air defense. Armor Vehicle armor thickness is expressed as Heavy, Medium, Light or None. What's in a Name You may wonder where the Soviets came up with all those weird names? Well, the names listed for most of the Soviet equipment are in reality NATO designations, not the real Soviet names. These NATO designations utilize the first letter of the unit's type to formulate the name. That's why Soviet fighter aircraft have names beginning with an "F", helicopters with an "H", air-to-air missiles with an "A", and so on. The reason is twofold. First of all, the Russian language is not that easy to read or pronounce; secondly, the actual names are sometimes not known until years after the unit has been spotted or released - afterall, you have to call it something. [Page 117] YOUR HELICOPTERS AND WEAPON SYSTEMS AH-64A Apache Gunship In the mid-1960s, after the AH-56 Cheyenne program failed to meet required developmental specifications (too expensive and too complex), the US Army was left without an advanced attack helicopter. At that time, the AH-1 Cobra was considered to be only a near-term step. The search continued, and the contract for the Apache was finally awared in 1976; the first Apache entered service in 1986. The Apache is now considered to be the premier helicopter gunship. Avionics: Includes a full suite of advanced communication systems, navigational flight aids and survivability systems. The target aquisition/ designation sight and pilot's night vision sensor (TADS/PNVS) are the heart of the avionics package. These linked systems include an auto-focus thermal imager, laser ranger/designator and TV camera. Both are integrated into a helmet-mounted sighting system. IR signature is reduced by the Black Hole System. An airborne target handoff subsystem (ATHS) data link is also included Weight: 9.5 tons Max Speed: 160 kts Crew/Pass: 2/0 Rate of Climb: 42 ft/sec Length: 17.8 m Service Ceiling: 21,000 ft Width: 5.3 m Main Gun: 30mm, 1200 rds Height: 4.7 m Missiles: Hellfire ATGM, Rockets Rotor Diameter: 14.6 m Weapon Load: 3.5 tons Engine: two 1,696 shp [Page 118] AH-64B Longbow Apache Gunship A natural follow-on to the AH-64A, the Longbow Apache will feature a number of mid-life product improvements, but will be built around the new millimeter- wave radar guided Hellfire weapon system. This system includes an integrated mast-mounted sight. The MMW Hellfire is a true fire-and-forget weapon. Its seeker head will guide itself to the target; a target designator is not required. It's also longer ranged, and suffer less degradation from rain, fog and smoke than FLIR's & thermal imagers. These upgrades will make the Longbow Apache and the Comanche unbeatable stable mates. Avionics: Will be an upgrade to the current Apache systems, but changes will mainly involve the target type discriminating MMW systems and related subsystems. Weight: 9.7 tons Max Speed: 160 kts Crew/Pass: 2/0 Rate of Climb: 40 ft/sec Length: 17.8 m Service Ceiling: 21,000 ft Width: 5.3 m Main Gun: 30mm, 1200 rds Height: 5.6 m Missiles: MMW Hellfire ATGM, Rockets Rotor Diameter: 14.6 m Weapon Load: 3.5 tons Engine: two 1,696 shp AH-1W SuperCobra Gunship The first AH-1 Cobra was built from the UH-1 Huey airframe, and saw combat in Vietnam. The Cobra has gone through many modifications and model changes. The "W" model is the SuperCobra on or about the "S" model). While it's currently only fielded by the US Marines, the US Army is soon expected to upgrade to "W" standards. Avionics: Includes a full suite of communication systems, navigational flight aids and survivability systems. The nose mounted night targeting system (NTS) includes a FLIR, laser ranger/designator and TOW fire controls. This system [Page 119] is integrated with the helmet-mounted sighting system. An airborne target handoff subsystem (ATHS) data link is also included. Weight: 7.6 tons Max Speed: 170 kts Crew/Pass: 2/0 Rate of Climb: 45 ft/sec Length: 17.7 m Service Ceiling: 14,000 ft Width: 3.3 m Main Gun: 20mm, 750 rds Height: 4.3 m Missiles: Hellfire & TOW ATGM, Rockets Rotor Diameter: 14.6 m Weapon Load: 1.4 tons Engine: two 1,690 shp AH-66A Comanche Gunship/Scout Helicopter In 1982 the US Army invited manufacturers to submin design concepts for its Light Helicopter experimental (LHX) program. The original procurement called for 5,000 units to replace UH-1, AH-1, OH-58 and OH-6 airframes; this was later revised to 2,096 units (the UH-1 Huey follow-on was eliminated). The LHX, now designated the AH-66A Comanche, will feature many advances in helicopter technology, including all-composite airframe construction, advanced bearingless rotor system, internal weapons bay and retractable landing gear. Stealth technologies will be employed where feasible. Its tandem cockpit seats the pilot in the front seat, as in jet aircraft. Avionics: Includes the most advanced systems to date. All will be fly-by-wire technology. All systems are integrated into the wide field-of-view helmet sighting/targeting system. MFD's will dominate the console, and the architecture will be of the same generation as US Air Force's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF). [Page 120] Weight: 7.5 tons Max Speed: 170 kts Crew/Pass: 2/0 Rate of Climb: 40 ft/sec Length: 13.2 m Service Ceiling: 151,000 ft Width: 2.3 m Main Gun: 20mm, 500 rds Height: 3.4 m Missiles: Hellfire ATGM, Rockets, Stinger Rotor Diameter: 11.9 m Weapon Load: 2.5 tons Engine: two 1,200 shp OH-58D Kiowa Warrior Scout Helicopter The first OH-58's saw service in the Vietnam War. It had been selected as the replacement for the OH-6 Cayuse. It also has seen great commercial success as the JetRanger. The Kiowa Warrior is considered to be only the near-term scout helicopter. It's scheduled to be replaced in the mid-1990s by the AH-66A Comanche, The US Army plans to field a total of 477 OH-58D's, by upgrading OH-58A models to OH-58D standards. Avionics: Mast-mounted sight includes auto-focusing thermal imager, laser ranger/designator and TV camera. The airborne target handoff subsystem (ATHS) enables remote targeting for the Hellfire missile. Weight: 2.0 tons Max Speed: 120 kts Crew/Pass: 2/0 Rate of Climb: 20 ft/sec Length: 12.9 m Service Ceiling: 12,000 ft Width: 2.0 m Main Gun: None Height: 3.9 m Missiles: Hellfire ATGM, Rockets, Stinger Rotor Diameter: 10.7 m Weapon Load: .4 tons Engine: one 650 shp [Page 121] UH-60K/L Blackhawk Assault Helicopter As a replacement for the UH-1 Iroquois Transport Helicopter (the famous Huey), the Blackhawk entered service in 1979. Designed primarily to transport 11 fully equipped troops, its spacious cabin enables it to also be used, without modification, for medevac, supply and command functions. The external stores support system (ESSS) can carry a significant number of weapons. The "K" & "L" models entered service in 1988. Avionics: Includes a full suite of communication systems, navigational flight aids, including advanced AFCS subsystem, and survivability systems. UHF satellite communication is also available. IR signature is reduced by the hover infrared suppressor (HIRSS) system. Weight: 10.0 tons Max Speed: 160 kts Crew/Pass: 3/11 Rate of Climb: 32 ft/sec Length: 17.7 m Service Ceiling: 19,000 ft Width: 5.5 m Main Gun: None Height: 5.1 m Missiles: Hellfire ATGM, Rockets, Gun Pods Rotor Diameter: 16.4 m Weapon Load: 4.6 tons Engine: two 1,560 shp AH-6G Defender Light Gunship/Scout Helicopter The original Defender dates back to the Vietnam War, where it saw action as the OH-6A Cayuse LOH (Light Observation Helicopter - "Loach"). The AH-6G is based on the commercial MD530 helicopter. A compact integrated crew station with multiple MFD's enhances this helicopter's field of view. It's designed primarily for day or night point attack and antiarmor missions, but is equally suitable for scout missions. Avionics: Includes a full suite of communication systems, navigational flight aids and survivability systems. Mast-mounted sight includes FLIR, laser ranger and TOW fire controls. [Page 122] Weight: 1.4 tons Max Speed: 120 kts Crew/Pass: 2/3 Rate of Climb: 28 ft/sec Length: 9.8 m Service Ceiling: 16,000 ft Width: 3.2 m Main Gun: 7.62mm MG Height: 3.0 m Missiles: TOW ATGM, Rockets Rotor Diameter: 8.3 m Weapon Load: .7 tons Engine: one 650 shp M230 30mm Chaingun Primary armament on the Apaches. The chaingun is a single barrelled, externally powered weapon that's drivin by a simple chain mechanism. The chain literally pulls the rounds of ammunition through the gun, therefore greatly reducing the chance of a jam. The chaingun configuration is lighter than gating guns. Weight: 55.9 kg Rate-of-Fire: 625 rpm Aiming Mechanism: Helmet Mounted Sight or Gunner's Sight Primary Target: Medium armored or unprotected targets [Page 123] M197 20mm Gatling Gun Primary armament on the SuperCobra. The M197 is a lightweight, externally powered 3-barrelled variation of the M61A1 20mm Vulcan 6-barrelled fighter aircraft weapon. It uses the gatling gun principle of rotating barells around a common axis. This makes for a high rate-of-fire and limits jamming. Weight: 66 kg Rate-of-Fire: 3,000 rpm Aiming Mechanism: Helmet Mounted Sight or Gunner's Sight Primary Target: Lightly armored or unprotected targets SUU-11B/A Minigun Pod The minigun is a 7.62mm development of the M61A1 20mm Vulcan 6-barrelled gatling gun. It's available as a wing mounted pod weapon on the Blackhawk, SuperCobra, Kiowa Warrior or Defender, and it's also the fixed gun weapon on the Defender. It provides excellent area suppressive fire for a small cost in weight. Weight: 147 kg, with 1,500 rds Rate-of-Fire: 2,000/4,000 rpm Aiming Mechanism: Direct fire along axis of flight Primary Target: Unprotected targets [Page 124] GPU-2/A Gun Pod The GPU-2/A is basically a M197 20mm 3-barrelled gatling gun in pod form. It's totally self-contained unit with gun and ammunition. It even has its own rechargeable power source. All the pilot needs to do is aim and fire. It's available as a wing mounted pod weapon on the Blackhawk, SuperCobra, Kiowa Warrior or Defender. Weight: 270 kg, with 300 rds Rate-of-Fire: 1,500 rpm Aiming Mechanism: Direct fire along axis of flight Primary Target: Lightly armored or unprotected targets Viper 20mm Gatling Gun Primary armament on the Comanche. The Viper is a lightweight 2-barrelled cannon. It uses an all new configuration, but is still based on the gatling gun principle of rotating barrels around a common axis. It's speculated that it fires a more effective round of ammunition than the standard M197 20mm cannon round. Weight: 50 kg Rate-of-Fire: 2,000 rpm Aiming Mechanism: Helmet Mounted Sight Primary Target: Lightly armored or unprotected targets AIM-92 Stinger AAM The air launched version of the Stinger has been in operation since 1988. Based on the excellent man-portable system, this version combines a new dual color IR & UV seeker head and a reprogrammable microprocessor (RPM). The missiles are mounted in a twin missile pod system. The Stinger is a very effective lightweight missile. [Page 125] Weight: 47 kg, twin launcher Maximum Firing Range: under 10 km Guidance System: IR homing Primary Target: short range, low-flying targets AIM-9R Sidewinder AAM The Sidewinder missile dates back to the late 1940s, when it was first developed by the US Navy. The current model bears little resemblance to the original other than in outward appearence. It has gone through innumerable changes in its lifetime. The "R" model has an all-aspect seeker head and improved low-smoke rocket engine. Weight: 87 kg Maximum Firing Range: 18 km Guidance System: IR homing Primary Target: All airborne targets AGM-122 Sidearm AGM The Sidearm system evolved out of the need to develop a low cost, lightweight anti-radar missile. Unused Sidewinder AIM-9C's were refurbished and brought up to AIM-9L/M standards, and a broadband passive radar seeker replaced the existing seeker. It will be carried by AV-8B Harriers, F-4G Phantom Wild Weasels, and helicopters. Weight: 91 kg Maximum Firing Range: 15 km Guidance System: Passive radar homing Primary Target: SAM & gun control radars [Page 126] AGM-65D Maverick AGM The Maverick "D" model entered service in 1983, and was a naturaly follow-on to this very successful weapon. It has replaced the earlier "TV" guidance system with an imaging infrared system. The IR system has a much greater range and has ability to "see" through smoke and dust. Maverick is a true fire-and-forget weapon system. Weight: 220 kg Maximum Firing Range: 25 km Guidance System: IR homing Primary Target: Heavily armored targets & fortifications AGM-114A/B Hellfire AGM Hellfire is the US Army's latest anti-armor weapon system. The "A" model's laser seeker requires the target to be illuminated by a laser source; however, it need not be the launching helicopter. The "B" model's millimeter wave radar seeker is a true fire-and-forget weapon system. It will be carried by the Longbow Apache. Weight: 43 kg Maximum Firing Range: 6 km (A), 8 km (B) Guidance System: semi-active laser (A), MMW Radar (B) Primary Target: Heavily armored tarets & fortifications BGM-71D TOW-2 AGM The TOW system has been utilized as an airborne ATGM since the Vietnam war. It (SACLOS) uses semi-automatic command to line-of-sight guidance. All the operator need to do is keep the cross-hair centered on the target. Commands are transmitted to the TOW via a thin wire. The TOW-2 model has a larger, improved warhead. Weight: 22 kg Maximum Firing Range: 4 km Guidance System: Command to Line-of-Sight via Wire Primary Target: Heavily armored targets & fortifications [Page 127] Helstreak HVM AGM/AAM The Helstreak High Velocity Missile (HVM) system is based on the British Starstreak SAM. It's laser guided warhead contains three accurate darts that independently home in on the target. This makes for a wide coverage pattern, which is important in the air-to-air role. With HUMs, exposure time is reduced. Weight: 40 kg Maximum Firing Range: 7 km Guidance System: semi-active laser homing Primary Target: Medium armored ground & air targets Penguin-3 Anti-Ship Misisle The Norweigian developed Penguin-3 anti-ship missile's modest weight (as far as anti-ship missiles go) makes it ideally suited for helicopters. The missile is aimed at a point on the surface, and it flies there under its own inertial guidance. Then, it switches on its IR homer, seeking out the heat of a ship against the cool ocean background. Weight: 380 kg Maximum Firing Range: 40 km Guidance System: IR homing Primary Target: Medium & Light ships [Page 128] Hydra 70 Rocket System The Hydra 70 rocket System (the 70 = 70mm, or 2.75 in) is a series of rockets each with a special purpose warhead. The M261 has a sub-munition multipurpose warhead. The M247 has a shaped-charge warhead for use against armored targets. The M255 has a flechette warhead for use against unarmored targets or Helicopters. Weight: 9 kg Maximum Firing Range: 2-3 km Guidance System: Unguided Primary Target: Varies by Warhead Type [Page 129] THE GROUND AND AIR UNITS U.S AND ALLIED UNITS The friendlies and not so friendlies. These are the predominate vehicles, aircraft and ships you'll cross paths with throughout your missions. While you'll certainly come across many other units (e.g. trains, trucks, buildings, bridges, oil tanks and airfields), they're just too numerous to mention. M1A1 "Abrams" Main Battle Tank Unquestionably the finest tank in the field today, the M1A1 entered service in 1985. It mounts the hard-hitting German Rheinmetall 120mm smoothbore cannon (same as the German Leopard-2) backed by a sophisticated fire control system. Later versions have depleted uranium (DU) armor added to the turret and hull fronts. Weight: 57.2 tons Main Gun: 120mm SB, 40 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 1,500 hp turbine Sec Gun: three MG's Speed: 64 kph Armor: Heavy M60A3 Main Batle Tank The M60A3 lineage dates from the venerable M47s and M48s. An earlier model, the M60A1, saw great success in the hands of the Israelis. It's slow and tall by today's standards (not a good combination), but still possesses reasonably good armor and firepower. It's also fielded by Saudi Arabia and Egypt. Weight: 52.6 tons Main Gun: 105mm, 63 rds Crew/Pass: 4/2 Missiles: None Engine: 750 hp diesel Sec Gun: two MG's Speed: 48 kph Armor: Heavy [Page 130] Challenger Main Battle Tank The British began design work on a replacement for the Chieftain in the late 1960s. The final concept took a round-about route, as the Challenger is essentially the Iranian Shir-2. It was designed by the British, for, at that time, the Shah led Iran, but the Ayatollah had a different opinion about buying tanks from the British. Weight: 62 tons Main Gun: 120mm, 64 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 1,200 hp diesel Sec Gun: two MG's Speed: 56 kph Armor: Heavy AMX-30 Main Battle Tank A French design, the AMX-30 entered production in 1966. Emphasizing the predominate European theories of the time, its design embraces speed and firepower, as armor was considered a secondary factor. The AMX-30 is also fielded by a number of middle eastern nations including Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Weight: 36 tons Main Gun: 105mm, 47 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 720 hp multi-fuel Sec Gun: one cannon, one MG Speed: 65 kph Armor: Medium M2A1 "Bradley" Infantry Fighting Vehicle The first Bradleys entered active service in 1983 after a protracted developmental period; the need was first identified in 1963. Its 25mm "Bushmaster" chaingun (a relative of the 30mm chaingun mounted on the AH-64 Apache) fires highly effective depleted uranium shells; TOW ATGM's provide the long-range hitting power. [Page 131] Weight: 22.6 tons Main Gun: 25mm, 900 rds Crew/Pass: 3/7 Missiles: TOW-2,7 rds Engine: 500 hp diesel Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 66 kph Armor: Light Warrior Mechanized Combat Vehicle In the 1970 the Brit's embarked on a program to develop a mechanized combat vehicle. Somewhat austere by US standards, the Warrior lacks long-range missile capability, and has relatively simple fire control systems. But, it's relatively inexpensive, and quite sound mechanically. The Warrior entered service in 1987. Weight: 24.5 tons Main Gun: 30mm, 228 rds Crew/Pass: 3/7 Missiles: None Engine: 550 hp diesel Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 72 kph Armor: Light M113A3 Armored Personnel Carrier The profilic M113 series was originally designed in 1956, and entered service in 1960. The A3 version entered production in 1987. The M113 is a "battle- taxi", designed to only transport the infantry into the general vicinity of the battle. Over 75,000 have been produced. It's used by many middle eastern nations. Weight: 12.1 tons Main Gun: 12,7mm MG Crew/Pass: 2/10 Missiles: None Engine: 275 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 64 kph Armor: Light [Page 132] Scorpion Reconnaissance Vehicle Born out of a British study conducted in the 1950s, the Scorpion entered British service in 1972. Its excellent cross-county performance and high speed make for the ideal recon vehicle. The scorpion's basic design has spawned 7 follow-on vehicles. It's also fielded by Saudi Arabia, UAE and Oman. Weight: 8.1 tons Main Gun: 76mm, 40 rds Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: None Engine: 190 hp petrol Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 81 kph Armor: Light Scimitar Reconnaissance Vehicle A descendant of the Scorpion, the Scimitar followed it into service one year later. The two vehicles differ primarily only in their armament. The Scimitar is intended to provide area suppressive fire, while still having the penetrative power to engage opposing recon and light vehicles. Weight: 7.8 tons Main Gun: 30mm, 165 rds Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: None Engine: 190 hp petrol Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 81 kph Armor: Light M901A2 ITV Anti-Tank Vehicle The ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle) entered service in 1979 as a replacement for the M150 open-topped TOW vehicle. It's a M113A2 fitted with the Emerson M27 TOW cupola. The M27 mounts a twin launcher, TOW guidance systems and a thermal imager. The TOW's can be fired and reloaded from "under armor". Weight: 13.0 tons Main Gun: None Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: TOW-2, 12 rds Engine: 215 hp diesel Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 55 kph Armor: Light [Page 133] M163A2 PIVADS Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun The M163 entered service in 1968; the PIVADS (Product Improved Vulcan Air Defense System) came on to the scene in 1984. The system is an M113A1 chassis with a one-man electrically-driven turret. The 20mm gatling gun is the same as used by Air Force Fighters. Even with its high rate of fire, it's very limited. Weight: 12.3 tons Main Gun: 20mm, 2100 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 215 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 68 kph Armor: Light M998 "Hummer" Utility Vehicle The multi-purpose "Hummer" entered service as a replacement for the famous and ubiquitous Jeep (M151). The Hummer fulfills many rolse, serving as an APC, Scout, TWO platform and fire support vehilce. To date, over 100,000 have been ordered for various branches of the US Armed Forces. Weight: 2.3 tons Main Gun: 12.7mm MG Crew/Pass: 2/4 Missiles: None Engine: 132 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 105 kph Armor: None [Page 134] M109A3 Self-Propelled Artillery Vehicle The M109 concept dates back to 1952, when it was born out of a study on self-propelled artillery. The lessons learned in WW2 and Korea clearly spelled the ultimate demise of static artillery. The M109 series emerged as the standard by which all other "SP's" are judged. It's fielded by most NATO members and many other nations. Weight: 24.9 tons Main Gun: 155mm, 36 rds Crew/Pass: 6/0 Missiles: None Engine: 405 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 56 kph Armor: Light MRLS Rocket Launcher An international design/production program, the MRLS (Multiple Rocket Launch System) entered service in 1983. The vehicle is partially based on the M2 Bradley chassis. Its primary rocket is the M77 rocket; each warhead contains 644 dual purpose shaped-change fragmentation bomblets. Weight: 25.2 tons Main Gun: None Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: 12-227mm rockets Engine: 500 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 64 kph Armor: Light [Page 135] LHA Tarawa Class Amphibious Assault Ship The first ship of this class has been in service since 1976. The LHA's are intended to combine the capabilities of LPH (helicopter carriers) and LPD (amphibious docks) into one ship. Four landing craft are carried in its deck. Its boilers are the largest ever installed on a US ship. It has a complete 300 bed hospital. Weight: 39,400 tons Main Gun: 3x127mm Crew/Pass: 1014/1924 Missiles: Sea Sparrow SAM Engine: 70,000 hp Aircraft: 38 helicopters, or 20 AV-8/B Harriers Max Speed: 24 kts FF Knox Class Frigate The Knox Class is typical of many escort frigates built during the 1970s. The class packs a large amount of firepower onto a small frame. The Harpoon SSMs are fired from the forward mounted ASROC launcher. The originally fitted Sea Sparrow SAM system, are being replaced by the Vulcan/Phalanx 20mm system. Weight: 4,250 tons Main Gun: 1x127mm Crew/Pass: 275/0 Missiles: Harpoon SSM, ASROC anti-sub Engine: 35,000 hp Aircraft: 1 helicopter The Op Speed: 27+ kts [Page 136] THE OPPOSING FORCES T-80A Main Battle Tank The Soviet T-80A is thought to have entered service in 1983. It has closer developmental ties to the T-64 then to the T-72. It's considered to be only an evolutionary design, although, the gas turbineengine is a radical departure. The AT-8 Songster was added to provide long range capability, as the 125mm SB's accuracy is poor. Weight: 42 tons Main Gun: 125mm SB, 42 rds Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: Songster, 2 rds Engine: 980 hp turbine Sec Gun: two MG's Speed: 75 kph Armor: Heavy T-64B Main Battle Tank The original Soviet T-64's entered service in 1967, and were plagued with autoloader and engine problems. The "B" model seems to have corrected these problems since it's still in production. It appears the T-64's were the "high- tech" option while the T-72's embodied the "bargain-basement" approach. The T-64 has never been exported. Weight: 42 tons Main Gun: 125mm SB, 42 rds Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: Songster, 2 rds Engine: 750 hp diesel Sec Gun: two MG's Speed: 75 kph Armor: Heavy [Page 137] T-72M1 Main Battle Tank The Soviet T-72 followed shortly after the T-64, entering service in 1972. The T-72 series has had a long career, and has been exported to many nations. Over a dozen sub-models have been identified to many nations. Over a dozen sub-models have been identified to date. This model features enhanced turret armor, resulting in the nickname "Dolly Parton". It's also fielded by Iraq, Syria and Kuwait. Weight: 41 tons Main Gun: 125mm SB, 39 rds Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: None Engine: 780 hp diesel Sec Gun: two MG's Speed: 80 kph Armor: Heavy T-62E Main Battle Tank The Soviet T-62 was developed from the earlier T-54/T-55 series, and entered service in the early 1960s. It was the first tank to mount a smoothbore gun. Its low ballistic shape was a plus, but otherwise it was mediocre. The "E" model features add-on "horseshoe" turret armor and a laser sight. It's also fielded by Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Weight: 41.1 tons Main Gun: 115mm SB, 40 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 580 hp diesel Sec Gun: two MG's Speed: 50 kph Armor: Heavy [Page 138] T-55M1 Main Battle Tank This latest version of the Soviet T-55 (the first entered service in the late 1950s) features add-on "horseshoe" turret armor and a laser sight. This is your basic "no frills" tank; simplicity is king here. The T-54/T-55's are the most widely exported of all Soviet MBT's, and is fielded by over 50 nations including Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Weight: 37.0 tons Main Gun: 100mm, 43 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 580 hp diesel Sec Gun: two MG's Speed: 50 kph Armor: Heavy Chieftain Main Battle Tank The British designed Chieftain introduced a number of innovations when it appeared in 1963. It was the first tank to mount a 120mm gun, and its highly sloped armor provided then unheard of protection. Yet still, it's slow and relatively clumsy. Iraq does field a large force, but aquired them as war booty from Iran and Kuwait. Weight: 55 tons Main Gun: 120mm, 64 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 750 hp multi-fuel Sec Gun: three MG's Speed: 48 kph Armor: Heavy [Page 139] BMP-2 Infantry Fighting Vehicle The BMP-2 is an upgrade ofthe Soviet BMP-2, and probably entered service around 1980. It saw the poor 73mm gun replaced with a high-velocity 30mm auto-cannon. The commander was moved from the hull to the turret, improving labor distribution and vision. The Sagger was replaced with the longer- ranged Spandrel. Weight: 14.6 tons Main Gun: 30mm, 500 rds Crew/Pass: 3/7 Missiles: Spandrel, 5 rds Engine: 400 hp diesel Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 65 kph Armor: Light BMP-1 Infantry Fighting Vehicle The Soviet BMP-1 caused quite a stir when it entered service in 1967. This revolutionary design was the first to combine cannon, ATGM and a full infantry squad with under armor fire capability. Its 73mm gun has poor long range accuracy, and the one-man turret is inefficient. It's also fielded by Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Weight: 13.9 tons Main Gun: 73mm SB, 40 rds Crew/Pass: 3/8 Missiles: Sagger, 5 rds Engine: 300 hp diesel Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 70 kph Armor: Light BTR-60/70/80 Armored Personnel Carrier The first version of this Soviet APC, the BTR-60, entered service in 1960. These vehicles are rather mediocre in all respects. The later models did overcome a number of flaws; at least the BTR-80 (data is for this vehicle) did replace the volatile petrol engines. The BTR-60 is fielded by most of the middle eastern nations. [Page 140] Weight: 10.5 tons Main Gun: 14.5mm, 500 rds Crew/Pass: 2/12 Missiles: None Engine: 260 hp diesel Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 80 kph Armor: Light MT-LB Armored Personnel Carrier The Soviet MT-LB design closely followed the MT-L arctic tractor. This accounts for its excellent cross-country performance. Typical roles for the MT-LB include artillery prime mover, command post and cargo carrier. Its chassis is also the bases for a number of other vehicles. Weight: 9.7 tons Main Gun: 7.62mm MG Crew/Pass: 2/10 Missiles: None Engine: 240 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 62 kph Armor: Light EE-11 Uruto Armored Personnel Carrier The Brazilian EE-11 first entered service in 1974. By all measures, it's a nondescript, basic every day APC. Even its wheeled configuration is much easier to maintain than a tracked arrangement. Like its cousin, the EE-9, it has been exported to many nations including Iraq. Weight: 14 tons Main Gun: 12.7mm MG Crew/Pass: 2/11 Missiles: None Engine: 260 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 105 kph Armor: Light [Page 141] BRDM-2 Reconnaissance Vehicle The Soviet BRDM-2 replaced its predecessor, the BRDM-1, in the mid-1960s. Its also used as a command or an observer vehicle. It has become outclassed by more modern vehicles, and its 14.5mm gun is outdated and inadequate. It's also fielded by most of the middle eastern nations. Weight: 7.0 tons Main Gun: 14.5mm, 500 rds Crew/Pass: 2/3 Missiles: None Engine: 140 hp petrol Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 100 kph Armor: Light AML-90 Reconnaissance Vehicle The French ordered the construction of this light recon vehicle after their sucessful use of the British Ferret scout car in North Africa; the AML-90 entered service in 1961. Over 5,000 AML's have been built to date in many configurations. It's fielded by Suadi Arabia, UAE and Iraq. Weight: 5.5 tons Main Gun: 90mm, 20 rds Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: None Engine: 90 hp petrol Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 90 kph Armor: Light EE-9 Cascavel Reconnaissance Vehicle Of Brazilian design, the EE-9 entered service in 1974. It shares many automotive components with the EE-11 APC. It now mounts a 90mm gun of Brazilian design; earlier models had 37mm gunsfrom WW2 vintage US M3 Stuart tanks. It's very simple yet robust, and this has made it a popular export. It's fielded by Iraq. [Page 142] Weight: 13.4 tons Main Gun: 90mm, 44 rds Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: None Engine: 212 hp diesel Sec Gun: two MG's Speed: 100 kph Armor: Light BRDM-3 Anti-Tank Vehicle The Soviet BRDM/Spandrel (often called the BRDM-3) was first seen in 1977. It has replaced the less capable BRDM - Sagger combination in front line service. This missiles are fired from a roof mounted launcher. Some vehicles have been seen with Spandrel/Spigot missile combination. Weight: 7.7 tons Main Gun: None Crew/Pass: 3/2 Missiles: Spandrel, 15 rds Engine: 140 hp petrol Sec Gun: None Speed: 100 kph Armor: Light 2S6 30mm/SA-19 Self-Propelled AA Vehicle The Soviet 2S6 was first seen in 1986 in then East Germany. It appears to be a very capable gun & missile system. Its four 30mm guns, although much longer, probably share ammo with the BMP-2. The SA-19 SAMS are IR homers and probably have a range of 10 km. It has separate serach and track radars and a laser ranger. Weight: 18.0 tons Main Gun: 4x30mm, 2000 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: SA-19, 8 rds Engine: 520 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 60 kph Armor: Light [Page 143] ZSU-23(4)"Shilka" Self-Propelled AA Gun The Soviet ZSU-23(4), or "Zoo" as it's known to western forces, entered service in 1966. Each 23mm gun has a rate-of-fire of 1000 rpm. Its single search/track J-band fire control radar has a range of 20 km. It's a very effective system when employed with missile armed systems. It's also fielded by Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Weight: 14 tons Main Gun: 4x23mm, 2000 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 280 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 44 kph Armor: Light ZSU-57(2) Self-Propelled AA Gun The first post-WW2 eastern bloc AA system, the Soviet ZSU-57(2) entered service in 1955. Its chassis is based on the T-54 tank, but with much thinner armor. Its twin 57mm guns are quite effective in a ground fire role, but have limited AA capability due to its mechanical reflex sight. It's still fielded by Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Weight: 28.1 tons Main Gun: 2x57mm, 316 rds Crew/Pass: 6/0 Missiles: None Engine: 520 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 50 kph Armor: Light SA-6 "Gainful" Self-Propelled SAM Vehicle The Soviet Gainful had a long and troubled development period, finally entering service in 1967. It saw much success in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. The SA-6 missile uses semi-active radar homing guidance. Gainful works in conjunction with the "Straight-Flush" radar system. It's also fielded by Egypt, Syria and Iraq. [Page 144] Weight: 14 tons Main Gun: None Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: SA-6, 3 rds Engine: 240 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 44 kph Armor: Light SA-13 "Gopher" Self-Propelled SAM Vehicle The Soviet Gopher entered service in 1977. In Soviet units, it's replacing the older Gaskin on a one-for-one basis. The SA-13 missile is very capable. It uses radar only for ranging as the missile is an IR homer; it has a range of 8 km. The Gopher utilizes a variant of the MT-LB chassis. It's also fielded by Siria and Iraq. Weight: 12.5 tons Main Gun: None Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: SA-13, 4 rds Engine: 240 hp diesel Sec Gun: None Speed: 60 kph Armor: Light 2S1 S0-122 Self-Propelled Artillery Vehicle The Soviet "Gvozdika" (Carnation) entered service in 1971. Outwardly, its appearence is very similar to the US M109. The Soviets were slow to adopt self-propelled artillery, continuing to rely on towed weapons. SP's are less vulnerable to counter-battery fire nad provide crew protection. It's also fielded by Syria and Iraq. Weight: 16 tons Main Gun: 122mm, 40 rds Crew/Pass: 4/0 Missiles: None Engine: 240 hp diesel Sec Gun: one MG Speed: 60 kph Armor: Light [Page 145] S-60 Anti-Aircraft Gun The Soviet S-60 is indicative of the many types and calibres of towed/fixed anti-aircraft guns still in use today. While limited in their flexibility, they are as accurate, or more accurate in some cases, than their self- propelled counterparts. Towed guns are fielded by many nations including most middle eastern nations. Weight: 4.5 tons Main Gun: 57mm, 200 rds Crew/Pass: 7/0 Missiles: None Engine: None Sec Gun: None Speed: Towed Armor: None Sa-3 "Goa" Low/Medium Altitude SAM System The Soviet Goa is obsolete by today's standards; it entered service in 1961. Aircraft counter-measures have made significant advances rendering missiles of the Goa's ere almost useless. However, there's always luck. The Goa is a radar beamrider; it works in conjunction with the "Low Blow" radar system. It's also fielded by Iraq. Weight: 7.0 tons Main Gun: None Crew/Pass: 3/0 Missiles: SA-3, 4 rds Engine: None Sec Gun: None Speed: Towed Armor: None [Page 146] MI-24W "Hind-E" Gunship The Soviet Hind first appeared in 1972. It was originally designed as a heavily armed assault helicopter, but has evolved into a capable gunship. It lacks the nap-of-the-earth maneuverability of its western counterparts. Still, it carries a heavy load, and has retained its transport capacity. It's also flown by Syria and Iraq. Weight: 12 tons Main Gun: 12.7mm Crew/Pass: 2/8 Missiles: Spiral ATGM, Rockets, SA-7 AAM Engine: two 2,200 shp Weapon Load: 2.4 tons Speed: 295 kph Mi-8TBK "Hip-E" Transport Helicopter When it first appeared in 1961, the Soviet Hip was a simple, quasi-military transport helicoper. After years of modifications, the Hip has evolved into one of the most widely accepted military helicopters with over 10,000 in use. It's described as the most heavily armed assault helicopter. It's flown by Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Weight: 11.2 tons Main Gun: 12.7mm Crew/Pass: 2/28 Missiles: Swatter ATGM, Rockets Engine: two 1,700 shp Weapon Load: 3 tons Speed: 130 kph [Page 147] MI-28 "Havoc" Gunship Often descried as the Soviet Apache, the Havoc completed pre-production testing in 1989. A true gunship, as opposed to the Hind's hybrid approach, the Havoc's narrow silhouette and tandem seating are much more suited to its role. Its high speed agility has also been enhanced by a new rotor structure. Weight: 11.4 tons Main Gun: 30mm, 300 rds Crew/Pass: 2/0 Missiles: Spiral ATGM, Rockets, SA-14 AAM Engine: two 2,200 shp Weapon Load: 3 tons Speed: 165 kph KA-34 "Hokum" Combat Helicopter By 1990, the Soviet Hokum was still in the testing stage. The exact role of the helicopter is not yet known. Kamov (Ka) helicopters have always been produced mainly for maritime roles. It may be intended for amphibious assault escort or anti-helicopter combat. It has the distinctive Kamov mark of contra-rotating rotors. Weight: 7.5 tons Main Gun: 30mm, 300 rds Crew/Pass: 2/0 Missiles: Spiral ATGM, Rockets, SA-14 AAM Engine: two 2,200 shp Weapon Load: 2.3 tons Speed: 190 kph [Page 148] SA-342 Gazelle Utility Helicopter The French Gazelle first flew in 1967. It has been utilized in many different roles, from recon, liaison and light attack, and many civilian applications. A disguised Gazelle was used in the filming of the movie Blue Thunder. It has been exported to over 41 nations including Great Britain, Egypt, Syria, Kuwait Qatar and Iraq. Weight: 2.1 tons Main Gun: None Crew/Pass: 2/3 Missiles: Hot ATGM Engine: one 858 shp Rockets: SA-7 AAM Speed: 140 kph Weapon Load: 1.2 tons Osa-II Class Guided Missile Patrol Boat A replacement for the earlier Osa-I boats, the Osa-II's have been in service since 1966. A favorite of many smaller or developing nations, these boats can provide an instant navy at low cost. The SA-N-5 SAM is the navalized version of the SA-7 Grail. Said to be poor sea boats with temperamental engines. Weight: 245 tons Main Gun: 4x30mm Crew/Pass: 30/0 Missiles: Styx SSM Engine: 15,000 hp Rockets: SA-N-5 SAM Speed: 140 kts Aircraft: None [Page 149] T-4 Class Landing Craft The Soviet T-4 class has been in service since 1954. It's not all that different from the landing craft that saw action during WW2. Weight: 70 tons Main Gun: None Crew/Pass: 5/50 Missiles: None Engine: 600 hp Aircraft: None Speed: 10 kts Load: 1xTank [Page 150] [Page 151] APPENDIX REGIONAL DEPOLYMENTS CENTRAL EUROPE Current Events This area has gone through more change, in a short perios of time, than any regional area in the twentieth-centure. Ten years ago, no one could have predicted what is now taking place. The Germanies are reunited and the Warsaw Pact has collapsed into a quasi- polititcal organization; its military teeth are gone. Civil and political strife continues to escalate in the Soviet Union; this has further de- stabilized the region. The Soviet Union is a giant teetering on the brink of civil war. The old guard conservatives and the liberal progressives (right-wing moderates by our standards) are each vying for control of the country. Whoever ultimately evolves as the victor will have far-reaching effect on the military stability of the region. Western Europe is a very appealing target. Its consumer goods, resources, technology and labor force are hard to ignore. The Soviet Union, regardless of who wins political supremacy, has tremendous "needs" and corresponding expectations. They will get the goods one way or another. The ex-Soviet client states are also a potentional hotbed. Their new found freedom has opened the door for secularism to again rear its ugly head. There have been clashes between the Czechs and Slovaks, and the Baltic States are constantly at odds with their old master. These internal conflicts have a habit of escalating to major proportions and drawing in other "interested parties". Military Balance Even without the non-Soviet Warsaw Pact Forces, the Soviet Union can still field over 3,000,000 men just in the land forces. Equipment includes over 50,000 tanks, 70,000 IFVs and APCs, 60,000 pieces of artillery and over 4,500 helicopters. There's no question that a portion of the equipment is obsolete, [Page 152] and is no longer of the first line status, even by Soviet standards. The Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE) is being touted by many as the greatest peace initiative since the Treaty of Ghent. Don't be fooled by all the rhetoric. The CFE treaty calls for equal force limits in five broad categories: MBTs, AFVs, artillery pieces, combat aircraft and armed helicopters. These categories were arbitrarily selected because of their reference to "offensive" weapons. These limits affect the forces fielded by all treaty signors (it was signed by the 22 members of NATO and the Warsaw Pact). The immediate result of the treaty - many nations, especially the Soviet Union, must dispose of military equipment. Here's where it gets sticky. The treaty simply allows the Soviet Union to dispose of outdated equipment or just to hold or store it east of the Ural mountains. Only the countries physically located in Europe must permanently dispose of their equipment. Of course, the USA also benefits from this apparent "loophole". Much of the US equipment must be stationed outside of Europe (the Persian Gulf region, for example) or returned to the USA. The question is, how long will it take to move it back? Geography The area boasts of some of the most fertile ground found in the world. Parts are mountainous or heavily forested, while others are as flat and clear as the plains of Kansas. Towns and villages dot a countryside cut by many small rivers and their tributaries and crisscrossed by a highly developed road and rail net. The Conflict Soviet forces cross the border into the new Germany after "rescuing" Poland from Western Europe dominance. Economic woes and a restless, impatient populace prompt the new conservative Soviet government to use military might to quickly solve their problems. After all, the aggressive Western Europeans, backed by the equally aggressive USA, have forced them to take this action to protect their borders. As part of the US V Corp, you must stem the Soviet tide to buy time for the mobilization of all NATO forces and the re-deployment of US forces from other regions. [Page 153] PERSIAN GULF Current Events The recent events in this region have been near and dear to all of our hearts. It couldn't have had a better ending if it had been written as a Hollywood movie script. Still, conflict is a way off life here. The region has seen constant war dating back to biblical times. In addition to the most recent UN sanctioned action, the past fifty years have witnessed constant civil wars and changes of government (mostly bloody), five Arab - Israeli conflicts, regional clashes, terrorism, internal genocide and a protracted war between Iran - Iraq ... not a pretty picture when you think about it. It remains an extremely volatile region. The coalition force that fought in Operations Desert Storm and Sabre are held together by a thread. Countries not stand beside allies whom they only recently fought as enemies. The smallest provocation could trigger a conflict between these strange bedfellows No one has forgotten the old hatreds; there was just something else a little more pressing. The poor Arab States hate the rich Arab States; the communist Arab States hate the monarchies; most of the Arab States hate the Israelis and the Egyptians because they don't hate the Israelis this year; and the Iranians generally hate Arabs because they're Arabs, not Persians. In addition to all this, Lebanon looks like a wasteland since just about everyone is using it as a pin cushion to work out their differences. In spite of this, don't let anyone tell you different - oil is the focus. That's not to say that these other issues are just passing fancies. Its a matter of the have-nots wanting what the have's have or the have's just wanting more. Economics, not politics is calling the shots. Military Balance The recent conflict has left the area in a very fluid state, to say the least. In spite of the drubbing they took, the Iraqis still possess a large fighting force even if most of them are now on foot. How many men remain in uniform and how much equipment is still in Iraqi hands is unknown. They were able to save the majority of their aircraft by flying them over the border into Iran. To the east of Iraq is Iran; not one of our closest allies by any stretch of the imagination. They appear to be perched like vultures; waiting to pounce on any opportunity. They field a 750,000 man army, but modern mechanized equipment is limited or in disrepair. [Page 154] Another potential antagonist is Syria. They have never really cared for the rich royalty of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. After all, Syria doesn't have much oil to speak of - see, that oil issue again! They only went along with the coalition, not being as shortsighted as Jordan, because they knew Iraq couldn't win. There was a lot of money to be had from those same rich Arabs. They have a 400,000 man army, with the equipment to back them up. While always considered a bit suspect militarily, they can't be overlooked. With the exception of Israel and Egypt, the other Arab States field rather small forces. Geography This is a desert region, pretty much hot, flat and generally barren. The cities are situated on the coasts, with the exception of the Tigris-Euphates valley (the fountain of life - a bit of irony) that runs through most of Iraq. The topography of Iran is, however, quite different. It's fairly mountainous and water is plentiful. The Conflict Still licking her wounds from the last war and bitter about the UN imposed sanctions, Iraq allies with Iran (that was part of the plan all along) and launches a renewed offensive into Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. They have managed to "buy" off Syria who decides to sit this one out. As part of the standing US Persian Gulf force, you must hold the line while the RDF is staged into the region. [Page 155] WEAPONS EFFECTIVENESS CHART SAM Threat Characteristics Backup Weapon Tracking Tracking Guidance Guidance Backup Use ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ SA-7B "Grail" none none IR (C) none man-portable SA-14A "Gremlin" none none IR (B) none man-portable SA-16A "Goblin" none none IR (B+) none man-portable SA-3B "Goa" radar visual radar (D) visual fixed battery SA-6B "Gainful" radar none radar (C) visual vehicle mounted SA-9B "Gaskin" visual none IR (C+) none vehicle mounted SA-11A "Gadfly" radar none radar (B) visual vehicle mounted SA-13A "Gopher" radar visual IR (B) none vehicle mounted SA-19A radar visual laser (A) IR (A) vehicle mounted Notes on Use Man-portable SAMs are utilized by infantry, carried in APCs and most light vehicles, and used to defend structures. Guidance system effectiveness evaluates use against helicopters. AAA Threat Characteristics Weapon Tracking Tracking Backup Eff Use ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~ S-60 57mm radar visual C towed gun ZU-23 23mm visual visual C+ towed gun ZSU-57 (2) visual visual D vehicle system ZSU-23 (4) radar visual B vehicle system 2S6 radar laser A vehicle system Notes on Use Effectiveness evaluates against helicopters. [Page 156] Helicopter Weapon Systems Weapon Max Range "A" Targets "D" Targets ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ 30mm cannon 1,500 m medium armor,unarmored, all air heavy armored 20mm cannon/pod 1,500 m light armor, unarmored, all air heavy armored Machine-gun/pod 1,000 m unarmored armored, aircraft M247 rockets 2,000 m all armored, naval unarmored M255 rokcets 2,000 m unarmored, helicopters armored M261 rockets 2,000 m medium armored, unarmored heavy armored TOW-2 4,000 m all armored, naval unarmored Hellfire-A 6,000 m all armored, helicopters, naval unarmored Hellfire-B 8,000 m all armored, helicopters, naval unarmored Sidearm 15,000 m all radar sources non-radar, aircraft Maverick 25,000 m all armored, naval aircraft Penguin 40,000 m naval land based, aircraft Sidewinder 18,000 m all aircraft land/sea based Stinger 5,000 m most aircraft land/sea based Helstreak 7,000 m medium armored, helicopters heavy armored Notes on Use Unarmored targets include most building structures. General Notes: A: means weapon effectiveness ("Eff") or guidance is very good B+, B & B-: means weapon effectiveness or guidance is good. C+, C & C-: means weapon effectiveness or guidance is fair. D: means weapon effectiveness or guidance is poor. [Page 157] GLOSSARY AA: Anti-aircraft. Guns designed to shoot down aircraft AAA: Anti-aircraft artillery; also referred to as "triple-A". Used mostly to refer to heavy AA guns, bu is generally synonymous with AA. AAM: Air-to-Air missile. ADF: Automatic Direction Finding. A device to home in on transmitted navigational signals. AFCS: Automatic flight control system. This device provides the control mechanisms for the autopilot and auto-hover systems. AGM: Air-to-ground missile. AH-xx: US designation for attack helicopters. Examples are AH-64 Apache and AH-66 Comanche APC: Armored Personnel Carrier. A tracked or wheeled vehicle that transports an infantry squad. Most carry machine-gun type weapons. AFV: Armored fighting vehicle. Armored vehicle designed for front line combat. APR-39: Lightweight digital threat warning system. Designed for use on helicopters and light fixed-wing aircraft. It's optimized for NOE flight. APU: Auxiliary power unit. ATGM: Anti-tank guided missile. A powered missile guided by write, radio, infrared or laser commands. TOW-2 and Hellfire are ATGMs. AUX Power Unit: Auxiliary power unit. Small on-board turbine engine use to provide power to start the main engines. Battalion: A military organization with two or more companies. Cavalry or helicopter battalions are often called "Squadrons". It typically has 500 to 1,500 men. [Page 158] BMP-x: Bronevaya Maschina Piekhota. Soviet built IFV. BRDM-x: Bronevaya Razvedyvatelnaya Dozornaya Maschina. Soviet built reconnaissance vehicle. Brigade: In the US Army, a military organization with two or more battalions. It typically has 3,000 to 6,000 men. BTR-xx: Bronetransportr. Soviet built wheeled APC. CBU: Cluster bomb unit. A bomb that bursts in to many smaller bomblets; utilized to cover a wide area. Chaff: Radar decoy. Composed of thousands of different sized metal film strips. Produces varying radar reflections. CM: Counter-measures. Jammers and decoys. CO: The commanding officer. Collective: Helicopter flight control used to "collectively" change the pitch of the main rotor blades. Commo: Communications. Company: A military organization with two or more platoons. Cavalry or helicopter companies are often called "Troops". It typically has 100 to 300 men. CP/G: Co-pilot/gunner. The "front seater" in helicopters with tandem seating (rear seater in the Comanche). The CP/G sits on the left in helicopters with side-by-side seating. Cyclic: Helicopter flight control used to selectively change the pitch of the main rotor blades. Ditch: A term for crash landing. FARP: Forward aiming & refueling point. A highly mobile helicopter base; it's normally airlifted by heavy transport helicopters. Fast Movers: Slang term for conventional jet aircraft. [Page 159] Flare: A cartridge shaped source of intense heat energy. Normally launched in groups of three cartridges each with a different heat frequency. FLIR: Forward looking infrared. Sighting device that "reads" the heat signature of objects. FLOT: Forward line, own troops. Current designation for the line closest to the enemy. Flying a Desk: Staff or command job with no flight duties GPS: Global positioning system. Satellite based navigation system. HEAT: High explosive, anti-tank. A type of warhead designed to punch through steel armor. Fitted on most ATGMs. Heavy Section: Helicopter flight group composed of three helicopters. HQ: Head Quarters. HUD: Head-up display. A piece of glass mounted on the front of the cockpit, arranged so the pilot can look forward through the glass. Important combat and flight information is reflected off the HUD. The images are superimposed over the outside world; the pilot can look through the HUD and retain the images. ICS: Internal communication system. Used for communication within a helicopter. IFV: Infantry fighting vehicle. A tracked vehicle that transports an infantry squad. Usually armed with small calibre cannons. In Constraints: Term used to describe when a weapon is within its maximum range and target envelope. INS: Inertial navigation system. A device that tracks a helicopter's current position and desired destinations. IR: Infrared. A portion of the electro-magnetic spectrum where the intensity of the signal is related to its heat signature. ITV: Improved TOW vehicle. The current US TOW platform - the M901. [Page 160] Jammer: A source of intense Infrared or radar energy used to confuse or "spoof" weapon systems. Ka-xx: Helicopters designed by the Soviet Kamov Bureau. Klick: Slang for kilometer. Knot: A measure of horizontal motion equal to 1.1 miles per hour. LGB: Laser glide bomb. A bomb guided by reflected laser energy. Light Section: Helicopter flight group composed of two helicopters. LZ: Landing Zone. Mask/Unmark: Terms used to describe the use of naturally occuring objects as cover. MBT: Main battle tank. A general term for "medium" and "heavy" tanks. MEDVAC: Medical evacuation. The transport of wounded troops. MFD: Multi-function display. Mi-xx: Helicopters designed by the Soviet Mil Bureau. Mig-xx: Aircraft designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Bureau. MPSM: Multi-purpose submunition. A type of the new Hydra 70 rocket system for helicopters. The M261 rocket has 9 bomblets, or submunitions, each with its own explosive charge per rocket. MRLS: Multiple rocket launching system. The newest Western artillery rocket system. NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization. A mutual defense treaty that includes 16 nations. They are all European based with the exception of the United States and Canada. NATO is important to the Central European Front, because it forms the basis whereby US, British and Canadian forces are stationed in Germany. OH-XX: US designation for observation helicopters. Example is OH-58D Kiowa Warrior. Passage Point: Safe, no fire area for flight through friendly troops. [Page 161] Platoon: The military organization subordinate to a company. It typically has 25 to 50 men. Primary: The most important mission of a flight. Pull Pitch: To quickly add collective control. RDF: Rapid Deployment Force. A US military force composed of "quick" move military formations. It's intended to be used as a timely response to "hotspots" around the world. Reticle: A small circular "glass" positioned over the right eye. Important combat and flight information is reflected off the reticle not unlike a HUD. The images are superimposed over the outside world; the pilot can look in any direction and retain the images. Rygar: Cool guy, typed all these docs by himself... yep sure did... GO AWAY S2: Battalion level intelligence officer. He finds and summarizes all information about the enemy. SAM: Surface-to-air missile. SEAD: Suppression of enemy air defenses. A term used to describe a mission to destroy enemy air defense units. Secondary: Targets of lesser importance than the primary. SOP: Standard operating procedure. Doing it by the "book" or operating manual. SSM: Surface to surface missile. Su-xx: Aircraft designed by the Soviet Sukhoi Bureau. TADS: Target acquisition and designation system. A device mounted on Apache helicopters that's used to lock onto targets and to control the laser designator. TF: Task Force. A battalion or squadron sized combat formation composed of mixed combat elements. Thermal Imager: Similar to a FLIT, but "tuned" to objects more than structures [Page 162] TOC: Tactical operations center. A small command tent. Usually set up in the field. UH-xx: US designation for utility helicopters. Examples is UH-60K/L Blackhawk. Visiononics: A collective term to describe all helicopters. Examples is UH-60 K/L Blackhawk. VOR: VHF omni-directional range. A radio beacon used for navigation. Warsaw Pact: Formed as a counter to NATO, it was originally composed of 7 Eastern European nations. It was purely a military organization dominated by the Soviet Union. It has now dissolved into a loose political group. Waypoint: An interim navigation point used in conjunction with the INS. Weapons Free: A term to describe full freedom to utilize weapons against targets. [Page 163] DESIGNER'S NOTES The Plan It was a bit scary when MicroProse's President, Bill Stealey, originally proposed a sequel to the highly successful Gunship. The first thought that came to mind was, how could we possible ever top that product? After the smelling salts were passed around, we started to kick around a few ideas. That really got the creative juices flowing, and it started to seem like a great idea - we now wished we had suggested it first. We knew that the new simulator had to be much broader in scope than the original. It would have to include most of the neat helicopters that the Army (sorry Marines, we'll give you equal time in a later scenario) currently have in their inventory, plus the ones that are still on the drawing board. This futuristic perspective is where the 2000 in the title comes from. We were lucky in one respect. Early on, we guessed that the Army would select the Boeing/Sikorsky version of the LHX, now designated the AH-66A Comanche. We knew if we went in that direction, we were committed, since the Army wasn't going to make its final selection until April of 1991. You know what they always say - I would rather be lucky than good. We also wanted to exapnd into the operational components of multihelicopter command. Not that flying a single helicopter can't be fun (after all, we did retain that capability), it's just that there's more to helicopter operations. We tried to go to extremes to capture the "realism" of helicopter combat. Real action doesn't take place at 2,000 feet. It happens right next to the ground. You feel like you're going to suck the leaves off the trees as you fly by. This is why Gunship 2000 is the way that it is. We wanted you right next to the ground, weaving in and out of the canyons and between the hills just like the real pilots. We made the "bad" guys act like bad guys, to a point - we still wanted you to have fun. After all, this is supposed tobe fun, not work. We only took a few liberties with the realism. The selection of the Persian Gulf was made, believe it or not, long before the actual conflict erupted in the region. It's not that we have a corner on [Page 164] crystal balls; the region has been a hotbed for years. It was really a pretty easy call. It's lucky the real thing worked out as well as it did. We never intended to capitalize on the conflict; we're happy to strictly deal in "simulating" the actions. The selection of Central Europe as the other theater was not an attempt at any political statement, or a prediction of impending doom and gloom. It's just that the US has a large standing fore in the region, in spite of the forces transferred to the Persian Gulf. Since Gunship 2000 is a simulation, we're simulating what could happen IF, and only IF, a war did break out. The terrain found in the region also gave us the chance to show off Gunship 2000's new 3-D system. The Team Many people contributed to the making of Gunship 2000; I apologize to those not specifically mentioned. It was a team effort, and we had a great team! Early on, we realized that we certainly couldn't utilize the 3-D system from the original Gunship and the 3-D system used in our other 3-D products, such as F-19 and F-15II, didn't provide a low level view of the terrain. We just had to design a new system. This is where Darrell Dennies worked his magic. Darrell started on the system, now dubbed Topographical 3-D, back in February of 1990. He developed an entirely new concept to emphasize and accent the terrain where helicopters operate. The results of his efforts speak for themselves. The worlds are rich in color and depth of detail. The terrain features aren't just painted on the ground, they actually "fit" into one another as they do in real life. You can actually look through the railroad tunnel to the other side! The terrain also includes fills and "fancy" patterns on the ground and even the trees. In the campaign game, the structures destroyed in previous missions are still destroyed when you find them again; the train even moves along the railroad tracks. This system is the most complex 3-D model yet developed by MicroProse; it's probably superior to anything you've seen. Darrell also programmed all of the "flight" related functions. He never ceased to amaze us all. One moment there could be a problem with a function or feature, and before you could bat and eye, Darrell had it corrected or added to the game. There wasn't anything Darrell couldn't fix or, somehow, squeeze into the program. [Page 165] The mission generation system was developed, and for the most part designed, by Detmar Peterke. He had the patience and insight to interpret my obscure concepts into something that would work. It wasn't easy coming up with a system that would generate challenging missions that could still be fun. He developed the "action area" system that's used for selecting options. Detmar, with the help of Dave McKibbin, also "tweaked" all of the nifty animations into the game. Detmar applied an "artist's eye" to his programming; this touch is reflected in the "look" of the game's starting and ending sequences. It's not often that you find this rare combination of talents. Speaking of art, we couldn't have been more fortunate than to have Mike Reis as a member of the team. He spent many long, tiring hours designing and drawing all of the terrific art. The screens aren't just scanned images or touch ups of other people's art, they're original and hand drawn. His art has the look of real "live imagery"; you get the feeling that you're standing in the room or sitting in the tent. That's a lot of pixels and colors to worry about! I know Mike often wanted to say "not you again" whenever we walked into his office with another change or idea, but he put up with constantly critiquing of suggesting changes to the art. It's a good thing he's not thin-skinned; he probably would have "skinned" us many times over - and deservedly so. I would be remiss in not thanking Max Remington for his terrific 3-D objects. He outdid himself again! Max is known as the "machine" around these parts. Whatever you ask for, he produces, no matter how complex or obscure. The helicopters in Gunship 2000 are the most complex objects we've ever included in a simulation; and, it's not like he had the luxury of working in an environment of unlimited capacity - he still had to make it fit. Jeff Briggs wrote all of the music that you hear during the game. He did a great job in capturing and setting the "mood" of the game. He had to write them all as original compositions, and had to try to make them fit within the presentation of the game. This wasn't an easy task. In many cases he had only concepts to work form. Ken Lagace along with Jim McConkey and Scott Patterson produced all of the game's sound effects. If you're lucky enough to have a Roland or AdLib sound card, you can experience the exciting sounds of helicopter flight and combat. [Page 166] Iris Idokogi and her staff of thousands (just kidding, the printed material looks so good, you would think it really took that many people to develop it) are to thank for the printed material. They're the group that usually gets the least amount of time. We designers always try to wait until the last minutes to finish writing the manual. Fortunately, Iris is persistent, and she doesn't let us get away with too much. I tip my hat to the quality assurance folks; they have the toughest row to hoe They are tasked with finding all of the things that don't work. No one is ever happy to see or hear from them, but their job is a key part of the process. Chris Taormino and the gang did a great job in keeping all of us honest. After all that, it leaves the design element of the game - that's me. I did what all designers do at MicroProse - research & develop the scope and flow of the game, and basically annoy everyone else. I also wrote the documentation with the help of Sean Gallagher, and developed all of the charts, tables and miscellaneous text. One part of the game i really enjoyed doing, at least I thought so when I started it, was designing the terrain and layouts for the 6 worlds in Gunship 2000. Darrell developed a number of tools specifically for this portion of the game that made my life easier. About 150 unique tiles were created for the worlds. Each world has over 4,000 "tiles" that are linked together to make the terrain look uniform. I started to dream about these tiles; I was smart enough not to tell my wife that she had been displaced in my dreams. The whole idea behind the game was to capture the essence of helicopter combat and to present it in an enjoyable, entertaining format. I believe we were successful. Only you can truly judge the results. Jim Day April, 1991 [Page 167] Typed by Rygar, August 1993. THE END.