ASIA **** Asia is the largest of the earth's seven continents. With outlying islands, it covers an estimated 44,936,000 sq km (17,350,000 sq mi), or about one-third of the world's total land area. Its peoples account for three-fifths of the world's population; in the early 1990s Asia had more than 3.4 billion inhabitants. Lying almost solely in the northern hemisphere, Asia is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Bering Strait and the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the southwest by the Red and Mediterranean seas. On the west, the conventional boundary between Europe and Asia is drawn at the Ural Mountains, continuing south along the Ural River to the Caspian Sea, then west along the Caucasus Mountains to the Black Sea. Many geographers prefer to regard the landmass formed by Europe and Asia as a single continent-Eurasia. The continental mainland stretches from the southern end of the Malay Peninsula to Cape Chelyuskin in Siberia. Its westernmost point is Cape Baba in northwestern Turkey, and its easternmost point is Cape Dezhnyov in northeastern Siberia. The continent's greatest width from east to west is about 8,500 km (5,300 mi). In Asia are found both the lowest and highest points on the earth's surface, namely, the shore of the Dead Sea (395 m/1,296 ft below sea level) and Mount Everest (8,848 m/29,028 ft above sea level). To the southeast of the mainland is an array of archipelagoes and islands, stretching east to Oceania. They include the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines, including Sumatra, Java, Celebes (Sulawesi), Borneo, and New Guinea. To the north lie Taiwan, the islands of Japan, and Sakhalin. Sri Lanka and smaller island groups such as the Maldives, and the Andaman and Nicobar islands lie in the Indian Ocean. Because of its vast size and diverse character, Asia is divided for convenience into five major regions. These are as follows: Asia of the former Soviet Union, including Siberia, western Central Asia, and the Caucasus; East Asia, including China, Tibet, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Japan; South-East Asia, including Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, the Republic of Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines; South Asia, including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bhutan; and southwest Asia, including Afghanistan and the countries of the region commonly called the Middle East-Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia, and the other states of the Arabian Peninsula. The continent may also be divided into two cultural regions: that which is "Asian" in culture (East Asia, South-East Asia, and South Asia) and that which is not (Asia of the former Soviet Union, and Southwest Asia). The Natural Environment ----------------------- Unlike the other continents, the interior of Asia consists of mountains, plateaus, and intervening structural basins. The highland core, located somewhat south of the geometric centre of the continent, is composed of the Himalaya and associated ranges, and the Tibetan Plateau. Around this central core are four major plateau regions (Siberia, eastern China, southern India, and the Arabian Peninsula) and several great structural basins and river plains. Geological History ------------------ According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth's surface crust consists of a number of huge continental plates and a number of equally large oceanic plates, most of which are in continuous motion. Of these, the largest is the Eurasian continental plate. Portions of this plate are composed of some of the most ancient rocks found on earth, those of the Precambrian time (about 4.65 billion to 570 million years ago), which are found today in the Angara Shield of eastern Siberia, in much of the Arabian Peninsula, and in India south of the Indo-Gangetic plain. During most of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic eras (570 to 65 million years ago), a huge sea, known as Tethys, covered much of the interior of Eurasia and laid down thick deposits, which in time were converted into sedimentary and metamorphosed formations. Approximately 30 million years ago, the subcontinent of India, which had broken away from southeastern Africa and drifted northeast, began to thrust under the Eurasian continental plate, creating an enormous "deep" that later filled with sediments to form the Indo-Gangetic plain. At the same time it generated tremendous pressure, causing the southern margin of the Eurasian continental plate to crumple into a series of great mountain ranges, of which the Himalaya is the most conspicuous. Plate-tectonics theory also helps to explain the formation of the arcuate (arc-shaped) ranges, peninsulas, and archipelagoes of Asia-as well as the volcanic activity and tectonic instability of East and South-East Asia. In East Asia the primary force results from the underthrusting of the westward-moving Pacific Ocean plate against the Eurasian continental plate. Japan, Taiwan, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Philippines are products of these forces. In South-East Asia, the situation is comp licated by the relative movements of the Pacific and Indian Ocean plates, and that movement helps explain the northern-southern trending highlands of mainland South-East Asia and the volcanic activity that characterizes most of the Indonesian archipelago. Physiographic Regions --------------------- Asia's physiographic system focuses on the Pamir Knot, a towering plateau region known as the Roof of the World, located where the borders of India, China, Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan converge; several peaks here exceed 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Spiralling out from the Pamirs to the west is the Hindu Kush and its extension across northern Iran, the Elburz Mountains. Beyond the latter are the Caucasus ranges, between the Caspian and the Black seas, and the Pontic Mountains along the Black Sea in Turkey. To the southeast are the Great Himalaya, paralleled by lesser but still great ranges to the north and south. Together these ranges form an imposing east-west arc, some 2,500 km (1,550 mi) in length, containing numerous peaks of heights well above 6,100 m (20,000 ft), including Mount Everest. Extending east and northeast of the Pamirs is the high Karakorum Range, which leads into the Kunlun Mountains, and a branch, the Altun Shan. This line of mountains continues east at lower elevations as the Nan Ling (Nan Shan), becoming the Qin Ling (Ch'in Ling) range of north China, which marks a major climatic divide between northern and southern China. Between the Himalayan system and the Karakorum-Kunlun ranges lies the Tibetan Plateau, which has average elevations of about 3,660 to 4,570 m (12,000 to 15,000 ft). Extending northeast from the Pamirs is the great Tien Shan, also with peaks rising above 6,100 m (20,000 ft) but diminishing in height as it approaches the borders of Outer Mongolia. To the northeast, the Altai Mountains extend into the Republic of Mongolia. Beyond them are the Sayan, Yablonovy, and Stanovoy ranges of eastern Siberia; the last two, however, are not part of the highland core. Several major structural basins are found to the north of the central mountain core. Farthest north, located between the Tien Shan and the Altai Mountains, lies the Dzungarian Basin of China. To the south of this, between the Tien Shan and the Karakorum and Kunlun, lies the vast Tarim Basin in which is found one of the largest middle-latitude deserts, the Takla Makan. Finally, embraced by the Kunlun and Altun Shan is the deep Qaidam (Tsaidam) Basin. Soil types also vary enormously. Siberia is overlain by acidic forest soils characteristic of the tundra and taiga; permafrost is common, and drainage is usually poor. These soils merge into dark grassland, steppe, and desert soils across a vast band that extends from northern China to the Black Sea, and into southwest Asia. The dark steppe soils, among the most fertile in Asia, are found in north central China and southwestern Siberia. In eastern and southern Asia, the most valuable soils for agriculture are the alluvial soils deposited in the lower valleys of the great rivers, especially the Indus and Ganges. These soils make up most of Asia's intensively used agricultural land. In low-latitude regions are found mature tropical soils, which are of generally low fertility. These mature soils grade, to the north, into soils with a higher humus content that are somewhat more fertile. Climate ------- The climate of the continent is as varied as its surface configuration-ranging from equatorial rainforest to Arctic tundra. For the most part, the northern part of Asia is dominated by the movement of polar continental air masses, travelling from western Siberia to the northern Pacific. Winters are long and harsh, summers are short and cool, and the annual precipitation is light. A similar climate is characteristic of the Tibetan Plateau and other uplands. The interior regions have middle-latitude desert or semiarid climates, with harsh winters and warm to hot summers; average annual precipitation is less than 230 mm (9 in). The southern and eastern margins of the continent, however, are characterized by monsoonal air movements, running from the cold interior east and south in winter, and from the oceans north towards the warmer land in summer. For the most part, the margins of Asia have cool to cold, dry winters and hot, humid summers, with a strong concentration of precipitation in the summer months. Although the term monsoonal is applied to all the climates of eastern and southern Asia, the true monsoon is characteristic only of part of the Indian subcontinent and Burma; in these areas average annual rainfall exceeds 2,000 mm (79 in). In other parts of southern and eastern Asia, rainfall is either less heavily concentrated in the summer or evenly distributed throughout the year. Most of eastern Asia experiences flows of maritime air from the western Pacific in the form of a monsoon effect. In places where orographic factors (that is, mountains) intervene, the winter is likely to be wet, as is the case along the eastern coastal areas of the Philippines, Vietnam, and Malaysia, and in parts of southern India. The coastal areas of eastern Asia are also subject to destructive typhoons, which originate in the western Pacific and the northern part of the South China Sea. Southwest Asia falls into a different climatic regime, characteristic of much of the Mediterranean area. It is dominated by a high pressure belt of dry, relatively stable air masses that move slowly from west to east, bringing winter rainfall and then passing into northern India. The average annual rainfall is light, and semiarid steppe and desert climates prevail. This climate regime extends into the northwestern Indian Peninsula. Vegetation ---------- Vegetation in Asia is extraordinarily diverse, bearing an intimate relation to variations in soil and climate. In the far northern reaches of the continent, in Siberia, tundra and taiga vegetation predominate. The former consists primarily of mosses and lichens; the latter is a largely coniferous forest of larch, pine, fir, and spruce. South of the taiga, grasslands occur in great east-west bands. These blend to the south into a desert scrub where aridity increases, as in the intermontane basins of the highland core and its peripheries, and in much of southwest Asia. In South, South-East, and East Asia, equatorial rainforest predominates in the lowest latitudes, where heavy precipitation is characteristic throughout the year. The luxuriant evergreen rainforest is characterized by numerous species, including teak, jackfruit, eucalyptus, oak, and various species of bamboo and palm. Farther north of the equator lies a more open tropical forest, often called monsoonal. This in turn merges to the north into subtropical evergreen forest, as in southern China and Japan. In the middle latitudes, mixed forests of deciduous and coniferous trees predominate; these intermix, to the north, with the coniferous forest region. Animal Life ----------- The fauna of Asia is as diverse as the continent's climates, terrain, and vegetation. The northern regions are rich in furbearing species, such as the brown bear, otter, lynx, sable, ermine, and wolf, in addition to a vast array of birdlife. The steppe and semiarid regions support antelope and numerous species of burrowing animals, such as hare and field mice. Freshwater fish are found in all parts of the continent; Lake Baykal is notable for its distinctive fauna, although severe industrial pollution has threatened the survival of many species. Wild sheep and goats are found in the highlands, and Tibet is the home of the wild yak. Wildlife is scarcer in the hot desert regions of southwest Asia, and of South Asia, where the most famous indigenous animal, the Asian lion, is virtually extinct. Jackals and hyenas, however, are common in these regions. The indigenous fauna of the more humid regions of eastern and southeastern Asia has been much diminished by the effects of centuries of human occupancy-notably of loss of habitat and hunting. Monkeys, however, are ubiquitous in the southern areas, and the Indian tiger still exists in perilously small numbers in parts of South and South-East Asia. Birdlife, snakes, and lizards abound, and various types of crocodiles are widely distributed. Wild apes such as the gibbon and the scarce orangutan are found in South-East Asia. Many types of deer and antelope also live in less well-populated areas such as Borneo, where flying squirrels and tree rats are numerous. Among the animals of unusual interest are the rare South-East Asian rhinoceros, the Asian elephant, the tapir, the anteater, and the wild buffalo of India and South-East Asia. The People ---------- The peoples of Asia are more diverse than those of any other continent, and they are highly concentrated in a small proportion of the total area, chiefly in southern and eastern Asia. Average population densities in the northern and interior areas are low by any standard, as are those in most parts of southwest Asia. Mongolia has the lowest population density of any country in the world- fewer than 2 people per sq km (5 per sq mi). People in these areas mainly live in river oases, such as the Tashkent oasis, where population densities are quite high. In Siberia, settlements are located primarily along the Trans-Siberian railway and its branches. In East Asia, South-East Asia, and most of South Asia, people are crowded onto relatively small areas of riverine lowlands, where population densities can exceed 4,000 people per sq km (10,360 per sq mi). Singapore is the world's most densely populated country with an average of more than 4,400 people per sq km (11,410 per sq mi). In China 90 per cent of the country's 1.1 billion population is concentrated in the eastern third of the country. Even in highly industrialized Japan most people live in the limited lowland areas, where the largest cities are located. Ethnology and Languages ----------------------- Mongoloid peoples are predominant in East Asia and mainland South-East Asia, but Malayo-Polynesian stock prevails in the archipelagoes of South-East Asia. In South Asia, about two-thirds of the population consists of Caucasoid stocks, resembling the peoples of the Middle East: Caucasoid peoples also dominate in southwest Asia and in much of Central Asia. In southern India darker-skinned people speaking Dravidian languages are the dominant group. Mongoloid peoples inhabit the Himalayan and Tibetan area, extending through Mongolia into eastern Siberia. The primary ethnic group in Siberia is Caucasoid, of European origin. Ethnicity rather than race is a more meaningful approach to the population diversity of Asia. Sinitic culture, and cultures that are influenced by that of China but possess their own languages, are characteristic of East Asia; these peoples include the Chinese, Tibetans, Mongols, Koreans, and Japanese. South-East Asia is more diversified, although peninsular and archipelagic South-East Asia is mainly Malay. Burmese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Khmer inhabit mainland South-East Asia, along with a number of other ethnolinguistic groups. In South Asia, the peoples residing in the north speak a variety of Hindi-related Indo-European languages; but in the south the Dravidian languages of the indigenous people of the Indian Peninsula are most important. In southwest Asia, Persian (Farsi), Arabic, Turkish, and Hebrew are the important languages identifying various ethnic groups. Altaic languages are numerous in Central Asia and in western China, although Russian today is the dominant language in Siberia. Religion -------- Asia fostered all the principal religions of the world and many minor ones as well. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam originated in southwest Asia; Buddhism and Hinduism in India; and the so-called Chinese religion, composed of Confucian and Daoist elements, as well as ancestor worship, in China. Although its historical impact, both direct and indirect, was great, Christianity is today practised by only a small number of Asians (most notably in the Philippines and South Korea). Buddhism is now a minority religion in its country of origin, India. However, it extends in two quite different forms, through interior Asia and into South-East Asia, where it is the main religion (in the Theravada form) of Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. Mahayana Buddhism is also important in Japan, Vietnam, and China. Islam dominates in Southwest and Central Asia, and is of major importance in South Asia, where both Pakistan and Bangladesh are predominantly Muslim. Indonesia, in South-East Asia, is also chiefly Muslim. Several Southwest Asian cities are important centres of religious pilgrimage, most prominently Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem.