INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Islam is the predominant religious faith in the Middle East and North Africa and one of the major religions in the world, comprising approximately one-fifth of the world's population with about 600 million adherents. The word Islam means "surrender" or "reconciliation." Islam had its, beginning with the visions revealed to the Prophet Muhammad between 610 and 632 A.D. Muslims believe that he was the last Messenger of God. It is one of the fastest growing religions in the world, whose adherents are made up of many races and cultures. There is great misunderstanding of the followers of the Islamic faith because most non-Muslims know little about their religious beliefs. People are in contact with followers of Islam throughout the Middle East and in other parts of the world. They need to know about Islam because they will be interacting more frequently with persons of that religion. The purpose of this book is to present the religion of Islam in a clear, concise way in readable English to assist those who would like to have a better understanding of Islam. It is hoped that uninformed attitudes will disappear and that the reader will develop a deeper appreciation for Islam, its history, and its traditions. Muslims are as diverse as Christians and Jews in respect to where they live, how intensely they practice their faith and their ethnic and cultural background. In their diversity, they are unified by a common faith, Islam, often referred to as Dar al- Islam, the House of Islam. Historical Overview The history of Islam begins with the life of the Prophet Muhammad in the Seventh Century. He was born, according to tradition, in 570 A.D. in the "Year of the Elephant," in Mecca. He traced his lineage to Ishmail and Abraham. He was born in Mecca in the Hashemite clan of the Qurayeh tribe. Though the Hashemite clan was one of the ruling clans, Muhammad's immediate family was poor. He was born and grew up in the midst of a nomadic society. (A more detailed account of Muhammad's life is given in Chapter III). Arabia was significant at the time because of the caravan trade routes which passed through the area and the diversity of its religious traditions. Although a commercial trade center for caravan trade which transported goods overland from India and further east to the Mediterranean, Mecca had been a religious center for centuries before the advent of Islam. The people there followed indigenous tribal religions, Judaism, and Christianity. Mecca was an established religious pilgrimage site before Islam. Merchants controlled access to its shrines and gained profits from the pilgrimage trade. As in most trading centers of the world, Mecca was rich with a variety of religious, ethnic and cultural traditions. The religious pilgrimage shrine in Mecca, the Kaaba, had 360 deities. The Meccans worshiped a variety of gods and goddesses and presented them with sacrifices. Christians and Jews also lived in the area along with those people who followed traditional religious practices. Violence was frequent and life was uncertain in the desert. The violence and uncertainty of life may have contributed to an Arab tendency toward excess in almost every activity. There were excesses in drinking, gambling and attitudes toward women. They valued having large numerous flocks and many sons. It was into this highly volatile world that Muhammad received his prophetic call. His message to the Meccans, which was revealed to him in visions, centered on the idea of one God, who created the world. Muhammad taught that he, Muhammad, was the Messenger of God. The Meccans at first rejected Muhammad's message. He, and his small band of followers fled Mecca after they were invited to Medina, an agricultural community, to mediate a long standing conflict between two tribes in the area. The people of Medina accepted him as their leader and he continued to proclaim his message. He consolidated his position in Medina and the neighboring areas, and attacked the caravans that were the source of the wealth to the Meccans. Muhammad and his followers attacked Mecca and finally defeated that city in about 630 A.D. With the defeat of Mecca, Muhammad became the most powerful man in Arabia. He succeeded in doing what no one before him, had done, he united the tribes under a single authority. Along with this, he was accepted by the Arabs as the "Messenger of God." Islam became a way of life based on a faith in one God and obedience to His Prophet. Islam spread by persuasion and "by the sword." Within a century Islam was the predominate religion in all of the Middle East. Islam in the World Today The religion of Islam originated in Arabia in the Seventh Century and spread rapidly across the world from Africa to the Pacific rim and to central Asia. In modern times it can be found on every continent on the globe. In the course of this expansion, it assimilated many different peoples, as diverse as the Persians, the Berbers of North Africa, the Turks and Mongols of western Asia, and a large proportion of the peoples of India, Africa and south-Eastern Europe. Islam embraces about 800 million people of every race, from Senegal to China, from Algeria to the Soviet Union, and some two million Americans. Muslims throughout the world may behave differently but they share a common religious belief, who say as the foundation of their faith, "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God." The three biggest Muslim nations are Indonesia, with about 135 million Muslims; Pakistan with 80 million; and Bangladesh, with 75 million. All countries in the Arabian Peninsula have a Muslim majority. Muslims form nearly the total population (90 percent or more) in approximately twenty-five countries and a majority (50 percent or more) in another ten. Mali, Afghanistan, Malaysia, Albania, and Iran are non-Arab countries with a Muslim majority. There are large Muslim minorities in other countries including 75 million in India, 42 million in the former U.S.S.R, 35 million in Nigeria, 16 million in China, 5.6 million in South Africa, 2.6 million in Yugoslavia as well as 2 million in Britain and 2 million in the United States. The religion of Islam is the second largest religion in the world. Only Christianity with almost two billion adherents is larger. Islam is spreading quickly because it has a strong appeal to the "grass roots" level because of its monotheistic simplicity, emphasis on brotherhood, and its strong missionary effort. It has its fastest growth and highest concentration in the Third World. Islam Permeates All Aspects of Life The religion of Islam is more than a belief system and an ideology. Islam is legalistic and permeates all of life. When one reads of political, economic or legal issues in Islamic countries the issues are almost always tied to the religion of Islam, and to Islamic Law. When Middle East terrorist activities are reported some aspect of Islamic religion is almost always an integral part of the story. The religion of Islam permeates the lives of the followers because the faithful, in keeping with the definition of the term Islam, are in submission to it. It controls all aspects of their daily life. To submit, and to follow its prescribed practices, is to be in complete obedience to the tenets of the faith. The sociopolitical manifestation of Islamic fundamentalism, cannot be separated from, the religion itself, since Islam in practice penetrates, influences and dictates all aspects of a Muslim's life. Islam, like orthodox Judaism, affects its followers in all that they do. The religion is present in what they eat, and what is considered unclean or clean, such as pork and alcoholic beverages, which are forbidden for Muslims. It affects their periods of prayer and their relations with others. Islam is legalistic and that in itself causes the religion to be all encompassing. Except for its more highly fundamentalist groups, Christianity is not as legalistic. When capital punishment, conduct of behavior or the dress of women is commented upon by writers in Muslim countries, it is almost always done with a strong emphasis upon religious customs. Because of its legalistic nature, Islam is a total way of life, a complete system governing all aspects of man's existence both individual and collective. It permeates worship, government, education, dress, work, money and possessions, food and eating, family life, relations between sexes, and all of human relationships. The religion of Islam is present with its followers every waking moment. There is technically no distinction between religion and the state in Islam. Islam holds itself out not just as a religion but as a source of law, guide to statecraft, and arbiter of social behavior for its adherents. Islam has been an enigma to some in the West because since its beginning it has been a source of conflict, violence, and fanaticism. On the other hand it has been a source of beauty, generosity and inspiration to those who have studied it. The Quran 4:8 states, "And when kinsfolk and orphans and the needy are present ... bestow on them therefrom. and speak kindly unto them." It teaches its adherents to love and care for weary travelers and to avoid violence, but on the other hand it unequivocally encourages violence in defense of the faith. In the Quran 4:65 it states that those who fight unbelievers are assured that God is with them: "If there be of you twenty steadfast they shall overcome two hundred, and if there be of you a hundred steadfast they shall overcome a thousand of those who disbelieve, because they (the disbelievers) are a folk without intelligence." Many Muslims consider it their duty to subdue the enemies of Islam by means of jihad (holy war). What Muslims Believe Islam is a monotheistic belief system. The word, Islam means "submission" or "surrender" to God (Allah) and he who submits is a Muslim. The true name of the religion is Islam and those who follow it are called Muslims. A believing Muslim says as an article of faith, "There is no god, but God, and Mohammed is the Messenger of God." As a religion it places less emphasis on elaborating a systematic theology than on understanding divine law; the concern is with ethics and doctrine. Devout Muslims believe that faith include good deeds. The followers of Islam recognize other prophets, including Abraham, isaac, Ishmail, Moses and Jesus. Muslims, however, believe Mohammed to be the last Prophet. He was not only a Prophet but also a political and military leader. He carried his message to Medina, Mecca, and throughout Arabia where Islam rapidly grew. By the time he died in 632 A.D., Islam dominated all of the Arabian peninsula. The Quran The Quran is the holy book of Muslims. The Quran is the primary source of doctrine in Islam. It is followed by the Hadith, or traditions of the Prophet, and the Sunnah, or the Prophet's example. (The Hadith and the Sunnah are explained later.) The word, al-qur'an, from which we get the word Quran, in Arabic means "the reading" or the "recitation." Muslims believe that it is the last and final word of God. They believe that the physical Quran is a part of a celestial Quran that is preserved in Heaven. Muslims believe that the Quran reveals His will and that His will is preserved in Arabic. They believe that the only correct reading of the Quran is done in Arabic. In worship, the Quran is always recited in Arabic, the language in which it was revealed to the Prophet -- never in translation. Whenever it is read or interpreted in another language, Muslims believe that the words are no longer those spoken by God. Educated Muslims will normally have a working knowledge of Arabic and the less educated will normally memorize parts of the Quran. The Quran was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad over a period of twenty-three years and is about the size of the Christian New Testament. He received his first revelation in 610 A.D. when he was meditating in a cave near Mecca during the month of Ramadan. He continued to receive revelations until shortly before his death in 632 A.D. Muslims believe that the Quran lays down the moral and ethical principles that govern all aspects of human life. They believe that the Quran is the perfection of all human knowledge of the past, the present, and the future. A devout Muslim attempts to address present day problems by using the Quran as a guide to contemporary living because is the foremost authority in all matters of faith and practice. The Quran states what is permitted and what is forbidden. The Bible often leaves room for interpretation. For example, in the Bible one could justify abstinence from alcohol or one could justify that the use of alcohol is permitted. The issue of unclean foods is another example. If one reads the Old Testament, one would conclude that pork is unclean, but if one reads the Pauline Epistles in the New Testament one could conclude that all foods are clean. In the Gospels it is recorded that Jesus said, "It is not what goes into a man that makes him unclean, but what comes out of a man that makes him unclean." In the Quran there appears to be no such latitude. It is specific about matters which are prohibited as well as about those which are obligatory. The Quran is not written in a sequential or chronological order. It is arranged roughly in order of length with the longer chapters listed first. The exception is the first chapter which constitutes a short prayer. The Quran can be opened and approached from any portion or page. For Christians and Jews it would be like reading Proverbs or the Psalms. Muslims believe that the Quran was not written by Muhammad, but was transmitted through him. They believe that Muhammad orally passed on the messages he received from the Archangel Gabriel to his followers who then memorized them. The Quran is divided into verses called aya and chapters called surahs. The Quran has 114 surahs. The verses of the Quran are identified as to whether they were given in Medina or Mecca. The ones from Medina are more poetic and have an apocalyptic theme, and the ones from Mecca, being later, deal more with laws. The Quran deals with legislation, the early Muslim community, relations with those who are not followers of the faith, the history of earlier Biblical prophets and various other subjects such as social or political situations. It also contains descriptions about Paradise and Hell. Upon the Prophet's instructions some of the messages were recorded during his lifetime. They were often recorded in a haphazard manner, on palm leaves, flat stones, the shoulder blades of camels and on scraps of parchment. The Quran was finally compiled in its present form in 651 A.D., nineteen years after the Prophet's death. It was compiled and edited under the leadership of ibn 'Affan 'Uthman, the third caliph. Hadith The Hadith are the traditions relating to the deeds and utterances of the Prophet as recounted by his companions. Each Hadith had to originate with Muhammad. Another type of Hadith is that which God is speaking. The Hadith deals with the Law, religious dogma and the smallest points of religious practice. The Hadith covers numerous subjects, large and small. The narrations preserved in the books of Hadith deal with all facets of his life, from the most personal, for example how to tie sandals, to the affairs of state. After the death of Muhammad, the traditions were collected and preserved for the use of judges and others in authority. Sunnah Sunnah, the Prophet's "example," refers to the collected words and practices of the Prophet not the revelations given to him. The Sunnah is used as a basis for law in Islam. It means "custom" or "usage." It includes what the Prophet approved, allowed or condoned, and what he refrained from and disapproved. Islamic Sects From the beginning !slam split up into a large number of sects. Various factions divided the Islamic community beginning the day Muhammad died in 632 A.D. The division of Islam occurred because there was no central doctrinal authority and because Islam spread to regions where there were different social, cultural, philosophical and ethnic traditions. The two major divisions of Islam are Sunnites and Shiites. Most Muslims are Sunnites. Shiites form the predominant religion in Iran, and are also found in other places including Iraq, Lebanon and along the Persian Gulf coast of Arabia. Sunnites Most of the world's Muslims are Sunnites or members of the Sunni branch of Islam. They have approximately 360,000,000 adherents. Sunnites are followers of one of the four Sunni Schools of Law. They are those who historically accepted the authority of the four successors after Muhammad, known as the caliphate, or whoever held it and however he attained it, as opposed to Shiites who believed that the office should be hereditary. The Sunnites comprise eighty to ninety percent of all Muslims and adhere to the basic beliefs and practices of Islam. They are referred to as orthodox Muslims. They follow the traditions and recognize the first four caliphs and attribute no special religious or political function to the Prophet's descendants or present religious leaders. The Schools of Law Within the Sunnite branch of Islam there are four Schools of Law: the Haiiafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i. The Schools of Law arose because there was a need to interpret the provisions of the Quran and traditions of the Prophet. When Muhammad was alive he was the chief judge of the community and resolved legal problems by interpreting the Quran. His interpretations became the Hadith. After his death, an organized judiciary evolved with the appointment of judges to the widespread provinces and districts. The judges were called qadis. The early qadis interpreted the law using their best knowledge of the Quran. Pious scholars began to debate whether the law was being equally interpreted in accordance with the proper Quranic intent. They established an Islamic code as a result of their studies. The Sunnites recognize the four Schools of Law and on all matters of vital importance they are in agreement, and all recognize the other systems as orthodox. A Sunni Muslim is expected to adhere to one of the four Schools of Law. The Hanafi School or rite is named after Abu Hanifah who died in 767 A.D. It is dominant in most countries that were formally part of the Turkish Empire (Western Asia, excluding Arabia and lower Egypt) and India. The Malikite, named after Malik ibn Anas who died in 795 A.D., is dominant in Southern Egypt and North and West Africa. The Shafi'ite school is named for Muhammad ibn Idris ash- Shafi'i who died in 820 A.D. He was an outstanding figure and forceful thinker in Islamic jurisprudence. The Shafi'i school is dominant in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Egypt, Central Asia and the Caucasus. The fourth school called Hanbalities is named for Ahmed ibn Hanbal who died in 855 A.D. He was intensely conservative in the matter of the Hadith, and in general it may be said that he was responsible for the most intolerant and fanatical view of the Muslims' duties and responsibilities. The Hanbalite school is only observed in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The Shi'ites The Shiites comprise 10-15 percent, or approximately 60,000,000 to 80,000,000 followers, of the Islamic faith, with doctrines significantly different from those of the orthodox Sunni majority. Shiites are made up of a number of different sects who differ from one another as well as from the Sunnites. The name Shia means a "partisan" and cores from Shi'at 'Ali (the party of Ali). The origin of the split between the Sunnites and the Shiites was political more than religious. The Sunnis hold that Muhammad did not designate anyone to succeed him and they believe that the first four Caliphs (successors) were rightfully chosen from among the people. The Shiites believe that the Prophet designated Ali, who was his cousin and son-in-law, as the successor and that the leader should be among the Prophet's descendants through him. When Muhammad died without a designating a successor, Muslims gathered to elect a caliph (successor). All of the prospective successors were related to Muhammad by marriage and one, Ali ibn Abu Talib, his cousin was related by blood. Many of those gathered supported Ali because he was married to the Prophet's favorite daughter, Fatima. One of those who opposed Ali was the Prophet's young widow, Aisha, who persuaded the Muslims to elect her father, Abu Bakr as the first caliph. Abu Bakr, a good friend of Muhammad, succeeded in holding the young community together and saw Islam expand throughout Arabia. When Abu Bakr died, he was succeeded by another of Muhammad's fathers-in-law, Omar ibn al-Khattsab. Omar was a strong leader, who directed the Muslim invasion of Syria and Egypt, established the judiciary system and changed the simple patriarchy of Islam into something resembling an imperial government. The third caliph was 'Uthman ibn Affan who at different times married two daughters of the Prophet. During his caliphate revolts began in iraq and Egypt. It was 'Uthman who ordered the compilation of the Quran from the memories of the companions and such written records as existed, after which it was then edited and a definitive version which bears his name, was copied and sent to the four corners of the Islamic empire. Ali ibn Abi Talib was elected the fourth caliph in 656 A.D., but Aisha did not accept his election and joined forces of Meccans to oppose him. There was an armed conflict and Ali defeated his opponents at the Battle of the Camel. Ali had to endure other conflicts and was eventually assassinated. Ali's elder son, Hasan, was elected caliph, but he was threatened by Mu'awiya and ceded the caliphate to him. Mu'awiya was proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem. The question of succession of the caliphate was the source of deep philosophical differences within Islam. The Sunnites believe leaders can be selected by consensus in the Islamic community. They believe such selection reveals the will of God. The Shiites on the other hand restricted eligibility for the caliphate to the descendants of the Prophet through Ali and Fatima. They believed that their religious leaders, called imams, only came through the divine lineage of Ali and Fatima. In the more extreme Shiite sects this stance became elaborated in to a theory that the imam inherits a divine light by virtue of his descent, not only from Muhammad and Ali, but from all the prophets beginning with Adam. The Shiites intensely believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor. The formal acts of the religion such as prayer and observances practiced by the Shiites differ little from the Sunnites. One major distinction is the Shiites' admiration and desire for martyrdom. The violent deaths of Ali and his sons, Hasan and Husain, created the adoration of martyrdom. Hasan died in Medina, allegedly poisoned by his wife. Husain was martyred during a battle at Kerbala in Iraq. His death is enacted in a martyrdom play which is performed in the days preceding the anniversary of Kerbala according to the lunar calendar. The dramatic martyrdom of the kin of the Prophet, and the wave of anguish and penitence of the faithful that followed it, infused a new religious fervor in the Shia, now inspired by the potent themes of suffering, passion and expiation. Shia Islam has had so many followers who died martyrs' death that the faithful commemorate martyrdom with passion plays and self-laceration, i.e. self-flagellation with chains with hooks on them and cutting the forehead with swords. In addition to their devotion to martyrdom, Shiite Islam is characterized by its belief in saints, pilgrimages to worship at the tombs of shiite holy men, and a belief in the eventual reappearance of the Twelfth Imam, "the hidden imam" designated by God who will establish justice and peace on earth. "The hidden imam" will reappear on earth as the Mahdi or "the guided one." Another distinction between the Shiites and the Sunnites is the view held of religious leaders. The Sunnites select their leaders and important decisions are reached by the consensus of the community. The Shiites reject the principle of the community. They believe the imam is an infallible spiritual leader whose decisions are divinely inspired. His duty is to guide the believers in all matters of faith and tell them what to do. Other Shiite Sects The Twelvers The largest Shiite sect is the Ithna Ashariya or "Twelvers." They are called "Twelvers" because they recognize a line of successors down to the Twelfth Imam, who were all descendants of Ali and Fatima and ends with Muhammad al-Mahdi. He disappeared around 873 A.D., and is still the "awaited imam" or Mahdi for the great majority of the Shia today. The "Twelvers" believe that he still lives and will return to rule the world as the Mahdi, "the guided one." The "Twelvers" are the dominant branch of Islam in present day Iran. This Shia group makes up 60 percent of the population in Iraq and have a sizeable minority in Afghanistan, Lebanon, Morocco, India, Pakistan, Syria as well as parts of Saudi Arabia and some of the Gulf States. They add the name of Ali to the profession of faith and petition the Holy Family to intercede for them with Allah. They believe the twelve imams are their protectors and direct their destiny. They make pilgrimages to their tombs located in Saudi Arabia. The Seveners or Ismailis The group within Shia Islam that accepts the line of succession down to the Seventh Imam are known as "Seveners." In opposition to the rest of Shias, they regard Ismail as the seventh imam. They maintain that when the Sixth Imam died, his son Ismail was wrongly passed over for the caliphate in favor of another son, Musa al-Kazim. The Ismailis or "Seveners" follow Ismail and his descendants. For about 150 years following his death, the Ismaili imams remained hidden and the group worked in secret. They appealed to the pious, the intellectual and the spiritual. To the discontented, they offered the attraction of a well-organized, widespread and powerful opposition movement, which seemed to provide a real possibility of overthrowing the existing order, and establishing in its place a new and just society, headed by the imam -- the heir of the Prophet, the chosen of God, and the sole rightful leader of mankind. The Ismailis believed that they had a design for a new world order. In the llth Century, the Ismailis spread their faith from the Atlantic to India. They waged a violent battle against all non-Ismailis. The Ismailis are most remembered for the violence of the offshoot groups that descended from their beliefs. The worst of these were the Assassins, a terrorist group based in Syria whose objective was murder. They occupied a string of fortresses in Syria and their chief was known to the Crusaders as "the Old Man of the Mountain." Marco Polo passed through the region in 1271 A.D., and recorded the account of his travels about what he heard about the sect. The "Seven-Imam Shiites" are found in India and have sizeable numbers in Central Asia, Iran, Syria and East Africa. Five-Imam Shiites Another group of Shiites that still exist is called "Five- Imam Shiites" or "Fivers." They are found only in Yemen. The Druzes Another heterodox sect which is an offshoot of Ismailism are the Druzes. They are a reclusive group of people who live in the hills of Lebanon, Syria and Israel. The Druzes have a monotheistic belief system, but believe that God has reappeared in as many as seventy incarnations. The Druze religion is closed to converts and they keep their doctrine secret. They will not accept converts. They have learned to assimilate into the surrounding populace without calling attention to themselves. For instance, in Israel, they serve in the Israeli Army. The Druze accept both the Gospel and the Quran as inspired books, but only their Druze scriptures are regarded as "the bible". There appears to be no restriction among the Druzes against participating in the rites of other religions; they may be seen kneeling in prayer with Muslims and attending Mass in Christian churches. Sufis The Sufis are an esoteric belief system in Islam. They are mystics. They believe that the faithful can have a personal relationship with God based upon love rather than on fear and prohibition. Their name is derived from the Arabic word for wool, suf. The early followers wore a coarse woolen garment. They rejected more sophisticated materials. The mystics were impelled by the insistent desire to find a more intimate and personal approach to, and union with, God than was provided by Sunni formalism and detachment, which placed man at an almost finite distance from his creator and regarded the Prophet as merely an interpreter of God's word, not a mediator between God and man. Sufism is found throughout the Muslim World. The foundation of Sufism, is a communal life, or brotherhoods. Sufi orders spread all over the Muslim world. North Africa is a stronghold of Sufism. Sufis detached themselves from material things to focus upon God. They use various means to heighten their contact with God, including repetition of religious phrases, fasting, dancing, the use of drums and stimulants to help produce a trance-like state, and so forth. They experienced conflict with orthodox Islam because some of their practices such as music, dancing and the prayer-beads, similar to the rosary, were seen as inappropriate by orthodox Islam. Sufism has been strong among non-Arabs and some Sufi sects have recently attracted many people in the West. A Sufi can be a member of a regular Islamic group and practice Sufism. Other Groups Bahai The Bahai developed in Iran as an off-shoot of the "Twelve- Imam" group in the Nineteenth Century. They were persecuted and have developed a strong following in Europe and the United States. The Bahai headquarters is in Tel Aviv, Israel. The Bahai promote world peace, brotherly love and emphasize that all nations and groups of people have messengers of God and there are different paths to salvation. Nation of Islam The Nation of Islam in the United States, also known as the American Muslim Mission and the Nation of Islam, all more popularly, but inappropriately, known as Black Muslims was founded and controlled by blacks in the United States. Their early leaders were Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X and the movement had its beginnings as a black separatist movement. In recent years they have modified their position and are accepted in the Muslim family. They take the pilgrimage to Mecca and observe all of the tenets of orthodox Islam. In recent years they have adopted a para-military police role in some drug-infested communities in the United States and use this as an example to proselyte for new members among people in those neighborhoods.