EXTERNAL VIEWS
--------------

Although "stepping outside" as you are flying along is not exactly
"authentic", a different perspective on a problem can often be useful and
let`s face it - its fun! We have included no less than six "external
views" that range from the commonplace to the spectacular. A status line
at the bottom of the screen shows your aircraft speed, altitude etc.

(a) Tracking view

Perhaps most common of all is the option to "step outside.. your cockpit"
and watch yourself fly along. When first selected, you will be positioned
immediately behind your aircraft, following at a fixed distance. If your
prefer, you may use the zoom in and out facility to adjust your perspective
at either normal or fast rate.

When you`ve had enough of looking at tailpipes, try the "adjust tracking"
controls. These allow you to swing your viewpoint around your aircraft in
either direction, quickly or slowly, to give you a full 360° outside view.
The "reset" option will position you behind the aircraft again and for good
measure we have the "toggle lo/hi" feature which puts you level with your
aircraft or slight below it.

It is worth mentioning that when you leave Tracking View, your viewpoint
and zoom level are stored so that when you next select this option your
viewpoint appears just as you left it. For example, if you wish to watch
an attack from a particular angle say looking back at your aircraft from in
front and below - you can set the viewpoint in advance, fly the attack, and
then switch to Tracking View at the moment of weapon release.

(b) Satellite view

Select this option for a bird`s eye view looking directly down onto your
aircraft. Select again and you`ll get a worm`s eye view looking up from
underneath! We do not recommend this second option when sitting on the
runway as all you will get is a close-up of the underside of the fuselage.
The plan view though is very handy when taxiing around the airfield. We
suggest that you zoom out to a reasonable height in order to see ahead of
your aircraft.

(c) Remote view

This option allows you to hop outside and watch your aircraft from a fixed
position. The viewpoint is fixed at the position of your aircraft at the
moment of selection, and turns to follow your aircraft as you manoeuvre.
This gives a superb impression of the true speed of your aircraft and is
great fun if you wish to brush up your radio control techniques but it`s
very easy to get disorientated or lose sight of yourself altogether.....

(d) Drone view

"Drones" are the numerous computer-controlled aircraft and ground vehicles
moving around the combat area simultaneously to yourself. By repeatedly
pressing "drone view select" you may observe their activity and impress
your friends. Zoom and track controls are available. You may also switch
between allied and enemy drones, aircraft or ground vehicles.

(e) Weapon view

What better way to approach a target than alongside your weapon? Again
zoom and track adjust is available. Just prior to impact, air to ground
weapons will switch to a plan view to help assess accuracy of delivery.

(f) Spectator view

Spectator view isn`t strictly a separate view mode - it`s an extra twist
you can apply to any other view mode to achieve cinematic effects. When
you select Spectator view, the viewpoint is "frozen" in space wherever it
happens to be at that moment (unless it`s already a Spectator view), while
the action carries on.

For example, you could call up the Tracking view. Move it around ahead of
the aircraft and zoom it out, then select Spectator view and watch the
aircraft approach and flash past the stationary viewpoint. If you select
Spectator view again as the aircraft passes, the view point will be frozen
at the aircraft position again, but this time watching it recede into the
distance.

You can use the track adjust controls to rotate a Spectator view, and once
you have set up the camera angle to your liking, return to the cockpit to
fly the aircraft back into shot. Selecting "restore Spectator view" will
put you back at your chosen spot to watch the effect.

If we tried to describe all the tricks you can play with Spectator view, it
would rate a substantial chapter on its own. You`ll have to experiment for
yourself and use your own imagination.

WEAPONS CONVERSION
------------------

When a pilot under training has reached the stage where flying the aircraft
to its safe limits does not demand 100% attention, it`s time to start
learning how to fight. The RAF call this phase of training Weapons
Conversion. There are two very different subjects to cover: ground attack
and air combat. In this chapter we`ll also be looking at how to use the
Tornado`s radar in both its air and ground modes, and the Radar Warning
Receiver. In the process we`ll be considering a variety of tactical and
operational problems.

AIR-TO-GROUND

The Tornado IDS was built to deliver the largest practical load of the
cheapest, simplest weapons as accurately as possible regardless of weather
and visibility. You may well be surprised at how accurately simple "dumb"
bombs can be placed by a smart bombsight. In addition, three special
grounds attack weapons are available, two of which are smart. You will
need to understand the nature of each weapon, when and why to use it, and
how to deliver it. First we`ll look at the list of air to-ground weapons

The Weapons

1000 lb. General Purpose Bomb (GPB)

A plain and simple unguided bomb, effective against a wide variety of
targets. Quite effective against a hardened target provided you can hit
it, and the blast and fragments will affect softer targets (most vehicles,
aircraft etc) over a fair radius. GP bombs are the cheapest of all major
ground-attack munitions, so large stocks are available. They also allow a
wide variety of delivery methods, so a good deal of flexibility is
available in trading off accuracy against risk. Usually delivered four at
a time.

1000 lb. Retarded Bomb (RET)

These are 1000 lb. GP bombs fitted with an alternative tail section
incorporating a braking parachute. This means that they can be dropped
safely from much lower altitudes than Gp bombs, since the aircraft is much
further ahead of the bomb by the time it hits the ground (see diagram
10.1). Minimum dropping height for Retarded Bombs is 100 feet (just enough
time for the fuse to arm), as against 1000 feet for unretarded GP bombs.
Because the retarder hit is a cheap and simple fitting for a cheap and
simple bomb, they are usually in good supply.

1000 lb. Laser Guided Bombs (LGB)

The original "smart" bomb. This is actually another special kit fitting
for a standard bomb carcase, providing a nose assembly containing the laser
seeker and control surfaces, and a tail with flip-out cruciform wings
giving it the ability to glide further than a standard bomb. LGB are used
in conjunction with the launching aircraft`s TIALD system. The navigator
slews and zooms his camera view to place the aiming crosshairs on the
precise point he wants to hit, which is illuminated by the laser designator
in the TIALD system. The seeker in the nose of the LGB "sees" the spot of
reflected laser light and tilts the bomb`s nose control surfaces to steer
towards it. Phenomenal accuracy is possible - missing the target spot by
as much as five feet would be a very poor performance.

This degree of accuracy makes laser-guided bombs the ideal weapon against
hardened installations or major bridges, which must be hit with extreme
precision to cause more than superficial damage. The downside is that the
designating aircraft must fly quite slowly at medium-to-high altitude in a
fairly straight line for twenty to thirty seconds in order to keep its
designator on the target till the bomb hits, and if there is cloud in the
way the laser couldnt illuminate the target even if the TIALD operator
could see it. Laser guidance kits are not cheap, and therefore not all
that plentiful, but on the other hand, few weapons are as efficient and
cost-effective; use it properly and every bomb scores a direct hit.

BL755 Cluster Bomb

Looks like a plain bomb, though less well streamlined is actually a casing
for many smaller bombs (submunitions). After dropping, the case splits
open at a preset height (set at 150 feet in Tornado) and ejects the
submunitions in a dense cloud. If properly delivered, a salvo of four will
devastate all but the hardest targets in a "footprint" perhaps 100 feet
across by 300 feet long. This is the weapon of choice against groups of
vehicles or parked aircraft. Its main drawback is that it must be
delivered from about 200 feet for maximum effect (see diagram 10.2)

JP,233 Dispensers

This is the mother and father of all runway-attack systems, the Tornado
version comprising two giant pods weighing a total of nearly five tons!
The pods contain two types of submunition: 60 large (56 lb.) SG.357 runway
penetrators and 430 small HB.876 "area-denial" mines" both types parachute
retarded. As the aircraft overflies the runway, the submunitions are
continuously ejected in a stream. When the runway-penetrators reach the
surface, a shaped charge punches a small hole right through the concrete
and a second charge is then fired into the hole, exploding beneath to crack
and "heave" the surface over as wide an area as possible. This type of
damage is far more difficult and time- consuming to repair than a simple
crater. Meanwhile the smaller mines land softly, discard their parachutes
and spring upright, deterring and delaying repair through the deadly danger
they present to men and vehicles.

JP.233 will make a really impressive mess of any runway if used properly.
Its main disadvantage is the fact that the delivering aircraft has to
overfly the target at low level holding a straight course for the four
seconds needed to dispense the whole load - manoeuvering strews the things
all over the place! It is also a Heavy, draggy load for the aircraft,
though the pods jettison automatically when empty.

ALARM (Air Launched Anti-Radiation Missile)

ALARM is probably the most capable and sophisticated missile of its type
currently in service (the US Tacit Rainbow project had even more ambitious
aims, but died the death of a thousand budget cuts). Like any other anti
radiation missile ALARM homes on the transmissions of enemy ground radars
(EWR, search, SAM or AAA radars, for example) in order to destroy them, but
it is far more resourceful than most

ALARM has many different operating modes, some of which are classified but
we have implemented two which seem most characteristic and useful. One is
a simple Direct mode, allowing ALARM to be used like any other anti radar
missile. In the other mode (Indirect) ALARM can be launched at distant
suspected targets before you reach them or they see you. When the target
is reached, the missile will zoom-climb to a point high above it, shut down
its rocket motor (if it`s still burning) and deploy a parachute. It then
loiters nose down, descending slowly and scanning the ground beneath. If
any hostile radar is switched on, ALARM jettisons the parachute and falls
on the target like a guided bomb.

Weapon Packages and the Stores Management Display (SMD)

Weapons for ground attack are grouped together in "Package". One package
contains all the weapons intended for one target, which will be released
together as a salvo. You might, for example, load a package of four
retarded bombs for a planned attack on airfield installations, and a second
package of two BL 755 to attack targets of opportunity. The maximum number
of weapons in a single package is four, and all must be of the same type if
they werent the bombsight would lose its accuracy because different weapons
have different ballistic properties.

The content and status of any weapon Packages loaded can be seen on the
Stores Management Display (SMD), bottom centre in the rear panel, where
each of the top three lines can describe a single package. Suppose that
the top line reads:

X GPB1000x4 LFT

This specifies from left to right the target, if any, for which the package
is intended (X). The type of weapon (GPBl 000), the number in the package
(x4) and the Delivery Mode selected (LFT). The Delivery Mode specifies
whether you intend to use manual or automatic release, a laydown or loft
trajectory a laser guided attack. Some weapons, like JP.233, have only one
delivery mode available. Others, like GP bombs, offer several options.
When you start your attack run and flip the "arm air to ground weapon"
switch. the HUD will display different aiming cues according to the
delivery mode selected. We will explore the various delivery mode options
later, in detail.

Packages are created at the Mission Planning stage, either when you plan an
attack on a specific target, or when you use the Payload window to create
packages to use against Targets of Opportunity. If you planned attacks on
two targets (X and Y) in one mission, and then loaded one more package for
opportunity targets. When you looked at the SMD the first line would show
the package for target X. The second line the package for target Y, and
the third line the Target of Opportunity package, with a dash ("-") on the
left rather than a letter.

The currently selected Package is shown highlighted. When you turn the
arming switch on, this is the package that will be used in the attack, and
the appropriate line on the SMD will flash continuously. When the package
is released the Arm status cancels itself, the HUD resets to its normal nav
mode the package disappears from the SMD and the next package is selected
and highlighted, ready to be armed.

You may override both the assignment of packages and the delivery modes,
attacking any target with any package, using any delivery mode suitable for
the weapons in the package. Hitting the K key will select and highlight
the next package down the list, or skip from the last to the first.
Hitting the L key will cycle through the available delivery modes for the
currently selected package. You cannot do either of these things when the
arming switch is on - if you want to change package or delivery mode you
must hit "Cancel Arm" first.

The Delivery Modes

This section provides a brief summary description of the various methods of
placing freefall bombs on the target. After this familiarisation, we`ll go
through a complete hands-on exercise with each weapon and mode in turn.

Manual (SMD shows MAN)

This is a simple "point and shoot" system intended for snap attacks on
targets of opportunity. The HUD provides a bombsight, but aiming and
release are entirely manual.

GP bombs, retarded bombs, BL755 and laser guided bombs (unguided) can all
use manual delivery.

Laydown (SMD shows LAY)

Targets for this delivery mode must be entered into the navigation systems,
either at the mission planning stage or "on the fly" using the Ground radar
or the Scrollable Map display. The HUD shows the bombsight and a marker
over the target, and the attack run can be flown manually or under AFDS
control. The exact moment of weapon release is automatically calculated
but the weapons cannot be released unless one of the crew is holding down
the Commit button.

Strictly speaking, a laydown delivery means releasing the bombs with the
aircraft flying straight and level, but the bombsight systems will handle
dive attacks or shallow lofts perfectly well in this mode.

GP bombs, retarded bombs, BL.755 and laser-guided bombs (unguided) can all
be delivered in Laydown mode

Loft (SMD shows LFT)

Targets for loft attacks must be known to the nav systems. As for Laydown
mode. This type of attack is sometimes also called "toss-bombing", because
the bombs are thrown rather than dropped. The aircraft starts its attack
run a good way out from the target, and while it is still miles away it
pulls sharply up into a climb. The bombs are released in the climb and the
aircraft is free to go while the bombs fly on for several miles, rising and
then falling onto the target in a trajectory like that of a long-range
artillery shell. The bombsight cues on the HUD are quite different from
the Manual or Laydown sights, and the attack profile can only be flown
manually - unfortunately the AFDS can`t fly the pull up for you. Release
is automatic, but only permitted if the Commit button is held down.

BL 755 cluster bombs are too aerodynamically "unclean" to be lofted
accurately and lofting retarded bombs would make about as much sense as
trying to pole vault with a ball and chain round your ankle, so Loft
delivery is only available for GP bombs and (unguided) laser guided bombs.

Laser-Guided (SMD shows LGB)

An LGB attack is run entirely by the navigator, who must use the TIALD
system to aim the laser designator at the precise spot he wants to hit.
The laser guided bombs are normally released in level flight at over 20000
feet, in order to allow the TIALD system the widest possible view, and
after release they aim themselves at the laser illuminated spot on the
target. The aircraft is normally flown by the AFDS for this type of
attack, but target designation and the release of the bombs can only be
performed manually.

Unsurprisingly, this delivery mode can only be used for laser-guided bombs.

WEAPONS TRAINING IN THE SIMULATOR

The Simulator provides the ideal environment for practicing any kind of
attack. You can start in mid-air, not far from the target, and there is
even an "infinite weapons" option which instantly replenishes any package
used. Select the Simulator from the Flight options, and look through the
options on the Mission Selection Screen until you find the mission titles
with the letters TWCU - for Tornado Weapons Conversion Unit. Select the
first of these, titled "IDS - TWCU Freefall Bombs". Make sure that the
Simulator Options switch for infinite Weapons is ON. Now Commit, and you
will move straight to the aircraft in flight. Engage the AFDS in Track
mode - you will find yourself Terrain-Following at a ride height of 1000
feet.

Switch to the back seat and you will see from the Track display on the left
Tab that the aircraft is approaching the Initial Point for an attack on
target X. On the SMD you will see that the first package is selected; four
GP bombs for Laydown delivery There are two other packages loaded, one with
two retarded bombs, and one with two BL.755 cluster bombs. For the moment,
we`re going to attack target X as planned, with the four GP bombs.

Laydown Attack (LAY on SMD)

Laydown bombing is "traditional" bombing, where the aircraft flies more or
less straight and level over the target to release its bombs. Lining up on
the target is the responsibility of the pilot (or the AFDS in Track mode),
but the exact moment of bomb release is controlled automatically by the
bombsight. The automatic release will not occur, however, unless the pilot
or navigator permits it by holding down the Commit button. Laydown bombing
is potentially very accurate at low level, since most pilots find it quite
easy to line the aircraft up on the target, whereas judging the exact
moment of release by eye is difficult to do consistently.

Wait until the aircraft passes the Initial Point and starts turning towards
X. The first thing to do is hit the "arm air-to ground" switch, which you
can do from either seat. From the back seat, you`ll see the selected
package on the SMD start flashing. In the front seat you`ll see the Late
Arm Switch cover raised, and the HUD mode will change to show the Bomb Fall
Line, the CCIP (Continuously Computed Impact Point), and the Target Marker,
which may well be partly hidden behind the Bomb Fall Line (see diagram 10,4
to find out which is which).

For the moment the autopilot has control, but to do this manually, your
first step would be to line up the Bomb Fall Line so that it passes through
the Target Marker. The upper end of the Bomb Fall Line provides you with a
Safety Height Cue. So that the aircraft isn`t damaged by flying debris as
the bomb goes off, You can see how this works in diagram 10.5. If you
can`t see the Bomb Fall Line at all, you"re far too low - it's disappeared
off the bottom edge of the HUD! The ideal minimum height attack is flown
with the top of the line right in the centre of the Target Marker, but for
now you might want to allow the normal training safety margin, with the
Target Marker in the gap below the top of the Bomb Fall Line.

The CCIP is the other element of the bombsight symbology. The point where
the CCIP line crosses the Bomb Fall Line is the point where a bomb would
hit if released now. In Laydown attacks, the release is automatic when the
CCIP reaches the Target Marker, but the symbol serves to show you how close
you are to release. Shortly before the CCIP reaches the Target Marker, you
must press and hold the Commit button to permit the automatic release.
When release takes place, the HUD changes back to normal navigation mode,
and the Late Arm Switch flips back down.

If you hit the Weapon View key just after bomb release you`ll be able to
enjoy a bomb`s eye view of the approaching target, followed by a plan view
at impact. It`s a good idea to ensure that the aircraft is in a sensible
autopilot mode before you go sightseeing.

Having flown the attack under automatic pilot in order to see what it
should look like, try it again manually. You can quit and restart, or turn
the aircraft around and come back to X, or you can use the Scrollable Map
to set up a Target of Opportunity waypoint to attack (don`t forget to
select T). If you want to make another pass on X, you`ll need to hop into
the back cockpit and check that waypoint X is still the currently selected
(highlighted) waypoint. If it isnt, use the skip to next waypoint, key to
cycle round until it is. For each fresh attack you`ll need to hit the
arming switch to arm the release system and call up the bombsight
symbology. Because you`ve selected Infinite Weapons, you wont need to make
any new selections on the SMD - your GP bombs will be replaced the moment
they`re dropped.

Once you`re comfortable with the bombsight, try the same attack with
retarded bombs and BL.755 cluster bombs. Just use the K key to highlight
the right package, but remember that you can`t do this while the arming
switch is ON.

The main difference you`ll notice is that the Safety Heights for these two
weapons are much lower than for GP bombs.

We talked in Advanced Flying Training about how to set a Target of
Opportunity waypoint using the Scrollable map. There are two other ways to
set a ToO waypoint, one of which is to use the Ground Radar, which we`ll
look at here.

Designating a Target of Opportunity on the Ground Radar

This can be done from the front or back seat. Hit the R key to turn on the
radar and show the radar image on the centre MFD. This is not a pure radar
image but a synthetic composite. The landscape and fixed objects known, to
the digital map system are always shown in dim green shades. When the
radar detects an object which is not in the map database it displays it as
a bright green dot. This is especially useful for finding vehicles
(including SAM and AAA defences) and trains. Note that the radar can`t see
through hills. In the dead ground, behind a crest the display will show
you only stored map data.

The mouse is used to control a designator cross which can be moved around
the display check that the MFD`s green Mouse Active light is on, and if
not, use the Tab key to turn it on. Just as with the Local Map display,
the radar display can be zoomed in or out by clicking left or right mouse
buttons with the Ctrl key held down, and targets are designated by clicking
left or cancelled by clicking right.

Remember that using the ground radar may draw the attention of the enemy,
if he hasn`t already seen you. If you select another MFD display while the
radar is on, there is a warning light on the panel to remind you that your
radar is still transmitting. Always turn the radar off if you don`t need
it.

Manual Delivery (MAN on SMD)

This is a simple "point-and-shoot" system intended for snap attacks on
targets of opportunity when there is no time to designate or the target is
moving. The HUD displays the Bomb Fall Line and the CCIP (Continuously
Computed Impact Point) across it, showing where the bombsight thinks your
bombs would go if released at this moment. No Target Marker is shown,
because you haven`t told the navigation systems where the target is. You
just fly the aircraft to place your visually selected target at the
intersection of the two lines, and then press the Commit button to drop the
bombs. The important difference between the symbology used here and in the
Laydown mode is in the way you interpret the Safety Height cue. In Laydown
mode you compare the top of the Bomb Fall Line with the position of the
Target Marker, but in Manual mode there is no target marker, so you compare
the top of the Bomb Fall Line with the position of the CCIP (see diagram
10.6). At low level you can achieve quite reasonable accuracy in Manual
mode, but it`s not exactty precision bombing.

To change the delivery mode; go to the back cockpit and highlight the
package you want to use using the K key, then hit the L key repeatedly to
cycle throught the delivery mode options for that package until you reach
MAN. As with any weapon delivery mode, you must Arm before you can drop
the package.

Loft Delivery (LFT on SMD)

A Loft attack (you might have heard this called toss bombing.) also
requires that the target position should be known to the navigation
systems. A Loft attack comes in two phases; in the first you run in at low
level and fairly high speed starting a good distance (say 10 miles) from
the target; you line up the Bomb Fall Line with the Target Marker and wait
for a 'countdown clock' on the HUD to count down to zero. When that
happens, the second phase starts as the HUD changes to display a "rubber
triangle" steering cue and another countdown clock. You pull up into a
climb, trying to place the cross at the apex of the triangle (the Apex
Marker) in the centre of the aircraft datum ring. As you do, the clock
winds down. When it reaches zero the bombs are released (provided that the
Commit button is down) and you are free to get the aircraft out of the way.
The bombs fly on, rising to the top of a long arc and then curving down on
or near the target.

In a typical Loft attack, an aircraft running in at 550 knots at 200 feet
would start its pull-up about five or six miles from the target and release
its bombs just below 1000 feet, climbing at an angle of just over 20o -
still four or five miles from the target. The bombs would take about 20-25
seconds to reach the target, climbing to 8-9000 feet before they start to
descend.

In a Loft attack, the bombs travel a very long way from the release point
with no form of guidance, so absolute accuracy can`t be guaranteed. In
practice, however, you`ll be amazed at how much accuracy is possible.
Nonetheless, Loft bombing is not recommended for precision attacks. The
great advantage of this form of attack is that the aircraft need not
overfly the target, and may never even come within range of its defences.

Restart the Simulator "Freefall Bombs" mission, engage AFDS Track mode and
switch to the back cockpit. The first package, (four GP bombs) is already
selected and the delivery mode is shown as LAY. Hit the L key to cycle
around the delivery options until the display shows LFT. When the aircraft
turns to run in on target waypoint X, hit the arming switch. The HUD will
now show the Target Marker, a solid Bomb Fall Line, and a Countdown Clock
slowly unwinding anti-clockwise around the Aircraft Datum. Use the Bomb
Fall Line to line up on the Target Marker, or let the AFDS do it in Track
Mode, and whether manually or under AFDS, set your altitude to about 200
feet and your airspeed to about 550 knots. The Clock is counting down to
the point where you start pulling up into a climb in order to loft the
bombs. This point, the Pull up Point, is constantly recalculated on the
basis of range to the target, speed (the faster you`reflying the further
you can throw the bomb) and altitude (the higher you are, the furthur the
bomb will fly). The Pull-up Point is determined by the maximum range at
which your lofted bombs could reach the target if released at your current
height and speed in a 45° climb. This is the climb angle at which you
would achieve the theoretical maximum range.

As the Countdown Clock approaches zero, stand by when the Pull up Point is
reached. The HUD symbology changes, to show another Countdown Clock and a
"RubberTriangle" steering cue. The Clock shows the difference between the
range to the target, and the distance your bombs would be thrown if you
released them now. The steering cue directs you to pull up and steer left
or right as necessary to stay lined up with the target; the small cross
(the Apex Marker) moves up and down, left and right relative to the
Aircraft Datum, the base line of the triangle is fixed and the middle
horizontal line is drawn halfway between the two, skewing right or left as
the Apex Marker moves. The position of the Apex Marker in relation to the
Aircraft Datum tells you which way to steer - when you`re pointed exactly
the right way, the Apex Marker is in the exact centre of the ring of the
Aircraft Datum.

Assuming that you are still well lined up on the target, the Apex Marker
will be directly above the centre of the Aircraft Datum, telling you to
pull straight up If you`ve flown this far under AFDS control, now is the
time to cancel it. Pull back firmly on the stick, and hold it back - the
standard practice is to pull up at about 3.5 G. As the aircraft pitches up
and starts climbing you will see the Countdown Clock run down rapidly as
your bomb throw distance increases, and the Apex Marker will also move down
closer to the ring centre. Both of these signs tell you that you`re
getting closer to the release point. You may also see the Apex Marker
deflecting sideways. If it does, bank towards it to line up again, but
dont overshoot on the correction. When the Clock and the Apex Marker are
indicating that you`re nearly at release, hold down the Commit button and
let the stick come forward to the neutral centre position . At the moment
of release the HUD reverts to normal nav mode symbology and the Arm status
cancels as for any other delivery mode. Diagram 1O.1O shows a complete
sequence of HUD images for a loft attack, from the start of the run through
to just before release.

Accuracy in a Loft Attack

As with any other form of attack you must line up exactly on the target
before release, but because the bombs travel so far in a loft attack any
directional error will result in a miss by a correspondingly large margin.
If you can see any heading error at all you must correct it before release
or your bombs will be wasted.

The other great factor in loft accuracy is the pitch rate just before
release. Remember that the bombs will be automatically released the
instant that the throw distance is equal to or greater than the range to
the target. The bombsight computer repeats its calculations for bomb throw
distance at very frequent intervals, but each calculation takes time. If
you are pulling up steeply, the throw distances from successive
calculations go up by leaps and bounds and the throw distance at release
may overshoot the target by hundreds of feet. Diagram 1O.11A illustrates
this problem, by showing how the predicted bomb trajectory and impact point
change at half-second intervals through a pull up. You should be able to
see that accuracy in these circumstances is a matter of blind luck. If
instead you let the stick come forward as the release point approaches
diagram 1O-11S, the throw distance still increases as the aircraft climbs.
but it increases in much smaller steps. The resulting release will stand a
far better chance of being accurate in range.

Recovery and Escape after a Loft Attack

The moment the bombs are released you`re free to turn the aircraft away
from the target and its defences, and you also want to avoid climbing so
high that you`re exposed as an easy SAM or AAA target. While the exact
profile of your escape manoeuvre will vary according to what you plan to do
next, a standard procedure for recovery might go like this;

1 Cancel Reheat

This reduces your heat signature, and reduces your chance of attracting a
SAM

2 Roll to 135o, pull hard

You need to turn hard and get the nose down at the same time

3 As the nose passes below the horizon; roll to 90o bank

You`ve stopped the climb, and the nose will continue to drop as you turn
away at the maximum possible rate.

4 As the nose passes 5o pitch down; roll to 60o bank

Pointing the nose at the ground at high speed and low level is a risky
business you need to ensure that you can pull out of your dive at a moments
notice

Delivering Laser-Guided Bombs (LGB on SMD)

This must be done using the TIALD system. TIALD stands for Thermal Imaging
And Laser Designation. Rushed from development into service in time for
the latter stages of the Gulf War, it provides TV and Imaging Infra-red
cameras plus a laser designator mounted together in a swivelling eyeball.
In its original form this is mounted on an external pod providing services
and attachment points to make the system suitable for fitting to almost any
aircraft (at the 1992 Farnborough AirShow it was on display attached to a
prototype Sukhoi Su 35!) but it is proposed to make the scanning head an
integral installation on the Tornado GR4.

You can only laser designate what the TIALD head under the aircraft can see
and the higher you are, the further you can see. We suggest an altitude of
about 23OOO feet. As with Loft attacks, a long run-in is desirable (say 6
miles or more) but we want a moderate-to-low speed (say 250 knots IAS). An
LGB attack is executed entirely from the navigator`s seat, with the
aircraft under AFDS control.

Select and commit to the Simulator Mission "TWCU - LGB Attack". This
places you in flight at 23000 feet, heading toward a Target Waypoint X on
an airfield Having assured yourself that the aircraft is heading in the
right direction at the right speed under the AFDS, switch to the back seat.
Looking at the Stores Management Display you will see that you have one
package of three LGB loaded, with the Delivery mode set to LGB. Use the
"Right Tab Function Select" key to cycle through the right Tab display
options till you see a downward looking camera view (infra-red at night,
visible light in daytime) with boxed crosshairs in the centre. This is the
TIALD view. Check that the green light in the corner of the right Tab is
on, indicating that mouse control is active on that display. If it isnt
hit the TAB key once or twice until it is on.
 
You will now find that moving the mouse scrolls the camera image in the
corresponding direction, but there are limits to the field of view. The
direction of the aircraft`s movement is always up the screen, so that the
image will rotate as the aircraft turns. Push the mouse forward so that
you are looking at the forward edge of the camera`s coverage, which is
where approaching targets will first appear, and sweep the field of view
from side to side. The TIALD image can be zoomed by holding down the Ctrl
key and moving the mouse forward or back. When zooming, the image locks on
the point at the centre of the display, compensating for the aircraft`s
movement, unless the trailing edge of the camera coverage catches up and
pushes it forward.

Zoom out as far as possible and move the view forward and backward between
the leading and trailing edges of the available area, watching the centre
symbol of the display. You should see that when the view centre is near
the forward edge of coverage (ahead of the aircraft) the centre cross
symbol is surrounded by square brackets, which disappear when the view is
centred nearer the trailing edge (behind the aircraft). While the square
brackets are shown, you could drop a bomb and continue to designate the
current centre spot long enough for the bomb to reach the ground. If the
square brackets are absent the spot in the centre of the camera view would
be too far behind the aircraft for you to keep it illuminated till the bomb
hit.

Use a wide zoom to search for some recognisable feature in the forward half
of the available camera coverage and then click the left mouse button.
This locks the view and the laser designator on the point at the centre of
the image, and sets the Target of Opportunity waypoint T at this point.
Now zoom in closer While you are locked on, you may finely adjust the
designator spot by moving the mouse while holding down the left mouse
button. It is normally best to do this in several stages, starting with a
wide zoom, placing the point, zooming in closer and adjusting position,
then closer for a further adjustment until you are satisfied that the laser
spot is on the precise point you wish to hit. Clicking the right mouse
button cancels the lock, letting the camera view roll forward over the
ground at the aircraft`s speed.

Use the D key to cycle display options on the centre MFD you`re looking at
the Local Map display (with the dotted orientation line down the centre).
Hit the 0 (letter "o") key to switch the map origin (the aircraft position)
from the centre of the MFD down to the bottom centre, so that you can see
ahead as far as possible. As the aircraft approaches Target Waypoint X you
will be able to see it marked on the map, which will help you locate it in
the TIALD image.

When the target airfield starts to appear at the leading edge of the TIALD
view start zooming in to find a target -for the moment. Any target will
do. Dont bother to place the lock precisely for the moment, just set it
somewhere in the general area of the target. Hit the arming switch and
release the package immediately with the Commit button. This triggers
immediate release of the first bomb. The arming status will not cancel
automatically until the package is empty. This allows you to release a
second and a third bomb manually at intervals of several seconds. In this
way you can either make repeated attacks on one difficult target or guide
each bomb in turn to a different target. An interval of four seconds
between bombs is a good choice for closely spaced targets.

It will be at least 20 seconds before the first bomb reaches the ground
from this altitude, and you can use this time to zoom in and refine the
position of the designator spot. When you`re satisfied with this, zoom out
a little to give yourself a more general view. When the bomb arrives you
will probably be able to see it flash into view before striking the target.
If you don`t change anything a few seconds later the second bomb will
strike the same spot, followed by the third.

Normally a "slow ripple" of LGB like this would be used to strike multiple
targets clustered in a group a HAS (Hardened Aircraft Shelter) complex
would be a classic example. It is simply a matter of shifting the spot
quickly after each bomb strikes. There are limits to how fast the bombs
can manueuvre, so the successive targets cannot be too far apart. If you
wished to strike widely separated targets, you would need a longer interval
between releases.

Delivering JP.233

Apart from the risks you run flying straight and level through the middle
of an airfield`s defences, the trickiest aspect of a JP.233 attack is
ensuring that your attack run is lined up accurately to put the maximum
number of craters in the desired section of runway. This should normally
be catered for at the Mission Planning stage, but be aware that very
accurate flying will be required to deliver the attack precisely as
planned.

Select the Simulator Mission "TWCU - JP.233" and start it up. You should
be approaching the Initial Point of your attack run on Target Waypoint X at
500 knots, at 200 feet. When the aircraft starts its turn to line up on
the target, hit the arming switch. You will see a solid Bomb Fall Line
with no Safety Height cue, the Target Marker and the CCIP. As usual, the
idea is to lay the Bomb fall Line over the Target Marker - with the added
complication that you must try to ensure that your course towards the
Release Point matches the direction of the runway under attack. The
problem is effectively identical to the problem of lining up for a landing
approach, and learning to cope with either one of these problems should
mean that you can handle both.

As the CCIP approaches the Target Marker, hold down the Commit button.
Release starts automatically and continues till all submunitions are
dispensed. Starting from the moment of release, the HUD will display a
Countdown clock This counts down through the four seconds necessary to
dispense the full load. Remember that any radical turn will spray
submunitions in a wide curve You may notice vibration and noise while the
release continues.

When all submunitions are gone, the HUD reverts to nav mode and the
dispenser pods are automatically jettisoned - you may notice the bump as
these go. Now it`s time to get the hell out of here! If you ever wanted a
good excuse to fly very, very low and fast you have it now. No-one but the
enemy will complain.

ALARM Attack

Hard data on ALARM is scarce and some of what there is looks deliberately
misleading. The most detailed documentation we`ve seen describes four
different operating modes, but claims that there are others still
classified. We have provided for two different modes of operation which
seem to us to be among the most useful of those claimed for the real
missile, and modified some of the figures quoted

ALARMS are loaded and managed in packages like all other ground attack
stores, and Direct (DIR) or Indirect (IND) mode operation is selected using
the normal select delivery mode, key.

Launching ALARM - Direct mode (DIR on SMD)

Direct mode provides for a defensive snap shot in response to a sudden
threat in front of you, the missile taking targetting information from the
Radar Warning Receiver. In this mode ALARM behaves very much like a
conventional anti radiation missile such as the AGM-78 Standard ARM or
AGM-88 HARM

In order to launch an ALARM in this mode you must first select a package of
ALARMs. Set the delivery mode to DIR, then hit "arm air-to-ground weapon".
The HUD symbology will change to show a Boresight Marker in place of the
aircraft datum, and the ground radar emitter most directly in front of the
nose (within an angle of plus or minus 45o) will automatically be
designated as the target. The standard Ground Target Marker will be shown
on the HUD, and a Range Clock centred on the Boresight Marker will indicate
the range to this target. Maximum reading of the Range Clock is 40000
metres (130000 feet or 21.5n.m.). If there is more than one hostile ground
radar showing on the Radar Warning Receiver (RWR), swinging the aircraft
nose left or right will automatically switch the designation to whichever
is most directly in front.

Once the target is designated, hitting the Fire / Commit button will launch
a single ALARM from the selected package on a direct trajectory. Provided
that the ALARM package is not empty, the arm status will not cancel
automatically on launch. If you want to disarm in order to select Indirect
mode, or another weapon package, you`ll need to do this manually with the
"Cancel Arm" key combination. When the package is empty, however, the
arming status will cancel automatically and the next package on the SMD
will be selected by default. If there is no ground radar on the RWR within
45° on either side of the nose, no target will be designated and you will
not be permitted to launch in Direct mode.

When launched in Direct Mode an ALARM will normally fly a direct trajectory
to the target, accelerating to about Mach 2 while the motor burns and then
coasting and slowing down. If the range is excessive and the missiles
speed drops below a given threshold before it reaches the target, the
missile will go into a zoom-climb to convert all its remaining speed into
altitude, then deploy the parachute and scan for a target beneath, as
described below for Indirect mode operation.

Launching ALARM - Indirect mode (IND on SMD)

In order to launch an ALARM in this mode you must first select a package of
ALARMs, Set the delivery mode to IND, then hit "arm air-to-ground weapon"
The target will be the currently-selected waypoint, whether from the stored
flightplan or a Target-of-Opportunity. The HUD symbology is identical to
that provided in ALARM Direct mode, showing a Ground Target Marker and a
Range Clock with the same calibration, subject to the same condition that
the target must be within 45° of the nose on one side or the other.

Once the system is armed and a valid target exists, each press of the Fire
/ Commit button will immediately launch one ALARM at the target. The Arm
status will not automatically cancel while there are still ALARMs left in
the selected package.

After launch, each missile will cruise toward the target at medium
altitude. Shortly before the target is reached, the missile will execute a
zoom climb to about 10000 feet and deploy its parachute. It then hangs
nose-down over the target, scanning for hostile radar emission. When it
finds one (or more) active radars, it will select the one most directly
beneath, cut away the parachute and drop on it as a guided bomb. If no
target has appeared by the time the missile has descended to 1000 feet, it
will cut away and drop unguided to the ground

If the missile is fired at a target beyond effective range, and it detects
that its speed has dropped below a threshold value, it will zoom-climb and
loiter wherever it happens to be at that point. If a threat radar is
detected beneath, it will attack it as normal.

SAMs and AAA, Tactics for ALARM

Radar is used by SAM (Surface-to-Air Missile) launchers, and AAA (Anti
Aircraft Artillery) vehicles, both to look for targets and to direct fire,
thus ALARM can be used against either - provided you can persuade or trick
them into switching on.

In Tornado, we assume that only search radars are left permanently on. SAM
and AAA radars will be switched on quite late as an aircraft approaches.
By the time they appear on your Radar Warning Receiver (RWR) your almost
within maximum range of a SAM. While your flightplans will, of course, try
to avoid known threats wherever possible, you will inevitably run across
unexpected, unmapped threats from time to time. It`s always sensible to
assume that any target worth hitting is also worth defending, whether or
not there are any known threats in the area. Defences around the planned
target are an unavoidable risk.

As always, you`ll have to balance risk and reward in deciding how to handle
the problem. If you use Ground radar, the mobile SAM and AAA units will
show up on it but so will all other types of ground vehicle. Ground radar
cant see through hills, so you`re still subject to the occasional
unpleasant surprise as you pass over the crest. Using Ground radar will
also make you more conspicuous and easier to find, but if you know that
you`ve already been detected or that help is available, you may consider
that it`s worth the extra risk

When an unexpected threat appears on your RWR you`ve got to make a choice
from among the following options: avoid it or face it: shoot at it or
rely on defensive measures such as ECM, manoeuvre, chaff and flares. If
you decide to shoot back, ALARM in Direct mode is by far the safest weapon
to use. All other available weapons and modes of attack would require you
to approach the target closely, flying in a more or less straight line.
We`ll discuss deflection shooting in detail later on, but take it on trust
that it`s far easier for a gun or a missile to hit an approaching (or
receding) target than one which is flying past a good way off to the side.

If you want to use ALARM in Direct mode to shoot your way out of unexpected
trouble, you`d better have it armed and ready so that all you have to do is
hit the Fire button. In the time needed to set up a launch from astanding
start you`d probably have flown straight past the threat, for better or
worse. See also the section below on ECM (Electronic Counter Measures).

ALARM`s Indirect mode is designed for use against known or suspected
defences which you can`t avoid. They might be the defences around your
planned target, or the optimum route to or from your target might take you
over a defended area. A planned attack using Indirect mode might be
organised somethlng like this: From a sensible stand off range you fire
several ALARMs each targeted on a different point in the suspect area.
We`ve assumed that extreme range for a launch at sea level is about 10
nautical miles (18.5 km) and from high altitude about twice that. The
missiles will reach the target area ahead of you, climb and loiter. They
will not attack until a radar activates in response to an aircraft flying
nearby - this could be an aircraft from either side There`s a catch here
which you must understand. We set the loiter altitude for ALARM at 10000
feet (a quarter of the published figure). If ALARM sees a target and cuts
away from this altitude, it`ll take about 23 seconds to reach the ground
with nothing but gravity to accelerate it (ignoring air resistance which
would only make the problem worse). In that time your aircraft will cover
about three miles at typical speeds, which by coincidence is roughly the
maximum effective range of the SAM systems you`ll encounter. In Tornado if
you simply fly straight on towards the target, in all probability you`ll be
hit by a SAM coming the other way shortly before your ALARM lands on the
launcher

What you`ve got to do is launch your indirect ALARMs, then provoke the
targets to switch on and activate the loitering missiles while exposing
yourself to the minimum risk. You`ve got to enter the threat zone in order
to trigger the defences, but having done so you`re free to turn away.
Against a heavily defended target it`s still safer than charging straight
in and trying to pick off the defences with ALARMs in Direct mode.

ECM (Electronic Counter Measures)

ECM represents a last line of defence against SAMs and AAA. It comes in
many forms, but the one we`re particularly interested in is intended to
degrade the enemy`s radar performance. If you turn on the Tornado`s ECM
system, SAM and AAA units will find it more difficult to obtain a lock on
you, and fighter radars and missiles may also be affected. This form of
ECM tries to give the enemy a false or unusable range reading by
transmitting carefully timed and shaped false return signals at the threat
radar.

ECM can certainly help when the enemy is shooting at you, but it is not
guaranteed 100°o effective. It also suffers from the same drawback as any
other active system it can attract the attention of sensors which would`nt
notice you otherwise. While it destroys the precision of range
measurements the added signal strength can actually make it easier to find
your bearing. As with your radar, if you want to stay unobtrusive don`t
leave it on all the time. A light on the panel reminds you when it`s
active.

The Tornado IDS does not have a built in ECM system - this is loaded as
apod on one of the outer wing pylons, balancing the chaff and flare
dispenser on the other side. On the Mission Planner Payload Window these
are collectively described as "Defensive Pods". The Tornado ADV has
integral chaff and flare dispensers and internal ECM equipment, so this
does not need to be loaded separately.

Cannon

The Tornado IDS carries two and the ADV one integral Mauser BK2 cannon.
The gun outfit of the IDS is intended for use against ground targets as
well as air to air, and HUD symbology is provided for both uses.

Because the cannon can be used against ground or air targets we`ll deal
with both its applications here in the same section, and describe how to
use the Air Radar mode which is essential for Air to Air combat.

There are in fact three HUD displays associated with the guns: one for use
against a designated ground target, one for a designated air target, and
one (the Standby Sight) which is the default when no target of either type
is designated or within view. To use the cannon in either mode, you must
start by hitting the Arm Air-to-Alr key combination (Alt+Enter on most
machines), and you may then cycle through the weapons available with
Air-to-Air Weapon Select. You`ll know when you've selected Guns because
you`ll see GUNS x180 in the bottom left corner of the HUD (on the ADV the
Weapon status panel will also show GUNS illuminated). In addition, if you
have no target currently designated, the Standby Sight will appear on the
HUD. This is highly distinctive because unlike all other HUD symbology
it`s coloured red.

Guns - Standby Sight

The Standby Sight is a simple "iron" sight, replacing the aircraft datum
symbol in other words, it makes no attempt to show you where your target is
or predict its motion; its only function is to show you where your cannon
shells will go. It can be used against any type of target, but only with
the aid of blind luck or genius will you ever score air-to air hits with
this sight from more than a couple of hundred feet away.

It has only the virtues of its defects: it doesn`t require you to switch
on the radar because it doesn`t use it, and you don`t have to designate
targets for it because it neither knows nor cares what you`re shooting at.

Guns - Air-to-Ground

This mode is intended to help you attack Targets of Opportunity typically
groups of unarmoured or lightly-armoured vehicles, parked aircraft or other
grouped soft targets. In order to use it you must set a ToO waypoint using
the Scrollable Map or the Ground Radar, and select it as the current
waypoint You don`t need to have the radar on, but if it is you must ensure
that its in Ground mode, not Air mode. Once these conditions are
satisfied, the HUD will show the Air to Ground Guns symbology whenever the
nose is pointed within a reasonable angle of the target. If you`re pointed
too far off, the Standby Sight will appear.

The Air-to Ground Guns symbology is quite simple and straight forward. The
normal Ground Target Marker is superimposed on the target, and the aircraft
datum symbol is replaced by the Boresight Marker, which should obviously be
placed over the Target Marker and kept there in order to hit the target. A
Range Clock is shown centred on the Boresight Marker, giving the range to
the target. If the clock is showing a complete circle, the range is 2400
metres (8000 feet) or more. The two marks on the lower rim of the clock
indicate recommended maximum (1500m / 4900ft) and minimum (900m / 3000ft)
ranges.

Apart from the obvious problem of hitting the target in the first place,
the main difficulty involved in using the guns to attack ground targets is
due to the fact that you have to dive the aircraft at the ground in order
to do it. The temptation to hang on a few seconds longer and take it a
little closer is a strong one, and must be firmly resisted or you`ll wind
up destroying the target by crashing the aircraft on it. Quite apart from
other considerations this is not cost- effective. Keep the dive shallow
and pull out as soon as the range falls below the minimum recommended mark.
Try it in the Simulator and you`ll soon see why we make a point of this.

Strafing practice

You can practice this kind of attack on almost any Simulator mission. The
best way to find suitable targets is to use the Ground Radar. If you have
enemy activity switched on (use the switches on the Mission Selection
Screen) then some of these targets will shoot back at you watch out. SAM
launchers and AAA units will show up on the Radar Warning Receiver when you
get within range.

Moving targets are obviously the most challenging, and for our purposes
these will either be road convoys or trains. They will show up on the
Ground Radar, but unfortunately the designation system for ground targets
wont track a moving vehicle. On the other hand, there's nothing to prevent
you from setting a ToO waypoint to help you pick up the target visually.

Attacking a convoy or a train from the side is not recommended. It
involves deflection shooting with no artificial aids, which is another way
of saying that most of the time you`ll miss. The best way to attack this
sort of long thin target is with a run along its length. This minimises
the deflection problem and groups all the targets together, giving you the
best probability of scoring some sort of a hit. Because trucks run on
roads and trains on tracks you always have two immediately obvious choices
of attack run, and good visual cues for lining up. For the ideal attack
you want to come in from behind rather than in front giving you the lowest
possible relative speed and the longest window of opportunity

Having said all this, experience suggests that if you spend too long
setting up the ideal attack you`ll probably find that your targets turn a
corner and trundle off in a new direction just before you come within
range.

AIR-TO-AIR

Air Radar

Whether you are using guns or missiles in air combat, you will need the
radar switched on in Air mode to designate targets. If you don`t have
radar switched on you will have no indication of target range, and
therefore no sighting information. You can use the guns with the Standby
Sight. But you`ll have to estimate deflections by eye, and you`ll be
unable to use missiles at all.

Turning on the Radar in Air mode is done by hitting Alt R on most machines.
This will also automatically select the Air radar display on the MFD. The
display is a plan view of the volume ahead of the aircraft nose, showing
enemy and allied aircraft within range as two different types of symbol.
Short range (2n.m./ 3.8km.) and medium-range (10n.m/18.5km.) displays are
available in both IDS and ADV Tornados, and the ADV also offers a
long-range setting (30n.m./ 55km.).

There are three different ways of designating an aircraft as a target. One
is to use the mouse to point and click on the display. The second method
is to point the aircraft`s nose in the general direction of the enemy and
hit "boresight designate" (Caps Lo on most machines). This will select and
designate the nearest aircraft in front of you. The third method is to hit
"next air target" (probably Alt+Caps Lo). If there is no air target
currently designated, this will work exactly like "boresight designate".
If there is already a designated target this will designate the next
available candidate, so you can use it to cycle round all targets on the
radar, designating each in turn.

It`s important that you realise and remember that the radar can only see
targets within a wedge-shaped volume in front of the aircraft. If you
designate a target which then passes out of the radar`s field of view, you
will lose lock If and when you re-acquire the target, you`ll need to
designate again. Boresight designation is the quickest and easiest method
to use in close air combat - just point your nose somewhere near the target
and hit the key.

The other thing to remember is that if you can see the target on your air
radar, he can certainly see you on his Radar Warning Receiver. The "radar
on indicator" on the panel will help to remind you that you`re still
transmitting even if you replace the radar display on the MFD with another
mode. If you don`t need it, turn it off.

Air to Air Weapon Management

Air to air weapons are armed with the arm air to air weapons key. The main
difference between air-to-air and air-to-ground weapon management is that
you can switch between air-to-air weapons without disarming. This allows
you to choose the optimum weapon for the current range and rapidly change
your mind as the situation changes. In addition, all air-to-air weapon
modes stay armed after firing (like ALARM or LGB), provided that you
haven't run out of weapons. The normal "Cancel Arm" key works exactly as
it does in air to ground modes.

Guns - Air-to-Air

In order to use this mode: a) you must hit "arm air-to-air weapon"
(probably Alt+Enter) and select the guns using "cycle air-to-air weapons"
b) the Radar must be on and in Air to Air mode, c) you must have designated
an aircraft as your target.

When you`ve designated your target a column of four numbers will appear in
the lower right corner of the HUD In order from top to bottom these show:
target Range in nautical miles; target Altitude in thousands of feet;
target Speed in knots and target Heading in degrees. If you want a
mnemonic, think RASH for Range, Altitude, Speed, Heading. If the target is
within the HUD field of view you`ll see the symbology shown in diagram
10.19. The aircraft datum is replaced by a medium sized cross (the
boresight symbol), a large Air Target Marker cross will overlay the target,
with a concentric Range Clock attached, and a small cross, the Aiming
Point, will be there as well.

If the Range Clock is showing a full circle, this means that the target is
at least 1000 metres (3000 feet) away. The two marks on the lower half of
the Clock correspond to the maximum and minimum recommended ranges, which
are 600 metres (2000 feet) and 400 metres 1300 feet) respectively. Beyond
the maximum range you`re very unlikely to score any hits, and if you`re
closer than the minimum you run the risk of hitting or ingesting debris
from a damaged enemy.

The Aiming Point is the only part of this display which really needs
explanation. In order to hit a target moving across your field of view,
you must allow for the distance the target travels between the time you
fire and the time the shot reaches the target. You have to aim ahead of
the target ("lead" it) in order to have any chance of hitting it, unless it
is travelling directly towards or away from you. This is the art of
deflection shooting. Given that you have to aim a shotgun a metre or so
ahead of a pigeon or ask to hit it from a range of twenty metres you should
see that when shooting at a 500-knot target from a range of 600 metres the
lead distance will be considerable, even though cannon shells travel far
faster than birdshot.

The history of air combat consistently shows that only a tiny proportion of
pilots are capable of accurate deflection shooting without a lead-computing
sight to help them. Before such sights were available, most gun kills were
made at short range from almost directly ahead or astern of the target,
thus effectively eliminating the need to estimate deflection. Even with
sophisticated modern gunsights, there`s still a lot to be said for this
method.

When you designate a target, your radar measures its range, bearing
elevation and radial velocity (by Doppler effect). Each measurement is
integrated with the previous ones to work out speed and precise direction.
The gunsight computes how long it would take your cannon shells to cover
the intervening distance, calculates how much lead is necessary and
projects the Aiming Point ahead of the target. Aim the Boresight at the
Aiming Point not the Target Marker, in order to maximise your chances of
hitting the target.

The Aiming Point is useful for more than just aiming. Because it
represents a prediction of the target`s position some time in the future,
it shows you his line of flight long before you`re close enough to see the
aircraft clearly, and immediately signals any major course change. This
information can (and must) be used to help you close the range, line up a
tracking shot and react quickly and effectively to counter manoeuvres.

Air to Air Missiles

Both IDS and ADV Tornados can (and usually do) carry the AIM9L Sidewinder
missile for short-range air combat. The Tornado ADV carries as its main
weapon payload the British Aerospace Sky Flash missile, which is for use at
medium ranges, in BVR (Beyond Visual Range) combat. In the following
sections we will discuss both missiles, how to launch them, and the
problems involved in any missile engagement.

AIM9L (Sidewinder) missile

There can`t be many of our potential users out there who haven`t heard of
this one. The original of this missile first went into service in 1956,
but its been upgraded so many times since that while the name is still the
same and its still a heat seeking air-to-air missile, everything else
except the body diameter has changed. Early versions were appallingly
ineffective and erratic in real air combat situations, but this didn`
prevent the Soviet Union from manufacturing a direct copy, the K13 (aka
"Atoll"). This copy was then copied in turn by the People`s Republic of
China as the PL-2. Both copies were later upgraded but have since been
replaced in front-line service by weapons of indigenous design.

Heat seeking missiles as a class have a simple low resolution "eye" in the
nose which "sees" infra-red radiation rather than the visible light
perceptible to you or me. Every warm object gives off an infra-red glow -
this is simple radiated heat. If it`s strong enough you can feel it on
your skin, even though you cant see it. A properly designed infra-red
seeker head is much more sensitive than this, so that even a poor one can
see a glowing jet exhaust from miles away while the best modern seekers can
see the heat radiation caused by skin friction on a fast moving aircraft
from a similar distance.

Why look in the infra red? When the first self-guided weapons were
developed in the forties and fifties, compact electronic control systems
were primitive or non-existent - the control systems of early weapons
tended to use very simple analog electronics. Even today with sensors,
computers and software of a power and sophistication then undreamt of, it`s
still a major challenge to build a system which is capable of looking at a
picture of an everyday scene and recognising even one object reliably, from
any angle. What the pioneers needed was a signature of some sort a signal
that was characteristic of the sort of target they wanted to hit and really
stood out from the background so that a simple system could detect it
reliably and tell whether it was coming from above, below, left, right or
straight ahead. Heat and infra-red radiation offered a promising solution
to this problem, since there are few things hotter than the back end of a
jet engine.

A simple form of heat seeking missile is easy to imagine. The seeker head
can see very hot objects from a reasonable distance, and distinguish up
from down and left from right. It takes the hottest object it can see as
its target. If the target is to the left, the control system commands the
missile to turn left, etc. If its in the centre then the missile flies
straight on. With any luck you would have thought it would come somewhere
near its target, if it`s not out of range.

In practice the problem is not that simple. You have to try to prevent the
missile from locking onto the Sun, the sun`s reflection, and many other
potential distractions, without interfering with its ability to detect and
recognise the target signature. You have to provide it with some kind of
proximity fuse so that it knows when to detonate.

The Sidewinder is designed to be small and light enough to be carried as
defensive armament by an aircraft which is already heavily loaded with
other weapons. This means that it has to be a fairly short-range missile.
The only sort of propulsion which makes sense for a small missile is a
small solid-fuel rocket motor - the alternatives would be prohibitively
expensive, heavy and bulky. So the Sidewinder spends just a few seconds
accelerating to high speed, and the rest of its short life coasting to a
halt after the motor burns out.

Launching AIM9L

The following conditions are necessary to launch an AIM9L:a) you must hit
the "arm air to air" key combination, b) you must use the "cycle air to air
weapon key to select AIM9L, c) you must turn on the radar in Air mode and
designate your target, d) the missile seeker head must be able to see and
lock on to the designated target.

When the target has been designated but the missile seeker cannot see it,
the HUD symbology is as shown in diagram 10.20. The weapon name and the
number available appear in the lower left corner, target Range, Altitude,
Speed and Heading are shown in the lower right corner. The Air Target
Marker and Range Clock overlay the target position. In this mode, the
maximum reading on the Range Clock is 10000 metres (33000 feet). An Aiming
Point is shown just as in Air-to-Air Guns mode, because it gives a useful
visual indication of the target`s direction of motion, and a missile tired
at close range may well not be able to hit the target unless it`s launched
with some degree of lead.

The other element of the symbology is the Lock-on Diamond. Until the
missile seeker head acquires the target, this will rest at the centre of
the HUD surrounding the Boresight Marker. When the seeker head picks up
the target and locks on, the Lock-on Diamond shifts to the Target Marker
and tracks it as shown in diagram 10.21. Lock-on is also confirmed by an
audible signal, a steady tone.

Active Sky Flash (ADV only)

Sky Flash is a medium-range air-to-air missile derived from the American
AIM 7 Sparrow. This missile entered service in its original form in 1956,
with radar beam riding guidance. This meant that the launching aircraft
kept a radar beam locked on the target, and the missile treated this rather
like an ILS beam, automatically steering to reach the centre of the beam
and stay there. This system is still widely used for ground-launched
(especially anti tank) missiles but it is far from ideal for an air-to-air
missile.

The next major version (in service 1958) adopted Semi Active Radar Homing
(SARH). This is a compromise solution used in many air to air missiles.
By far the largest, heaviest and most power-hungry part of a radar system
is the transmitter, since this must develop and control very large energies
in order to provide a strong enough signal to give good range and signal to
noise characteristics. Fitting a really good radar transmitter into a
sensibly sized missile is extremely difficult today, and was totally
impossible in 1958. A semi Active missile carries a radar receiver only,
to pick up the signal transmitted by the big Radar in the launching
aircraft and reflected by the target.

SARH is an enormous advance on beam riding, but it`s still far from
perfect. The main disadvantage is that the launching aircraft must
continue towards the target, with its radar on, for the entire flight time
of the missile. If the enemy fires a missile back the result is a
desperate game of 'chicken'. Whose missile will reach the target first?
Will ALL the enemy missiles lose guidance even if the launching aircraft is
destroyed? In general, western short range missiles are heat-seeking and
medium or long-range missiles are radar-guided, but the Soviet Union made a
practice of developing both radar and heat seeking versions of almost all
its air-to-air missiles, regardless of size and range class. This
obviously increases the uncertainty factor.

The AIM-7 Sparrow was in its E version by the time of the Vietnam War when
it was first fired in anger. Its performance was widely regarded as
unsatifactory, though some argued that its low success rate was due to it
being used at shorter ranges than it was really intended for. Over Vietnam
it was usually necessary to close to visual range to be sure that the
target wasn`t a friendly aircraft, and if you were within visual range you
were really too close for Sparrow to work as designed. The new spurt of
development resulting from combat experience placed heavy emphasis on
reducing the minimum range requirement.

Development of Sparrow in the USA continued into the eighties, when it was
supposed to be replaced by the AIM-120 AMRAAM, but ten years later AMRAAM
is still not in full-scale service and the supposedly obsolescent Sparrow
is still in widespread use. Meanwhile in the UK a program began in 1969 to
build the basic AIM 7E2 missile airframe under licence, but to fit it with
an alternative seeker head and fuse more capable than the contempary USA
standard. The program was considered to be highly successful, and the
resulting missile, christened Sky Flash, was first delivered to the RAF in
1979 and also sold to the Swedish Air Force.

Sky Flash as such is still a semi-active missile, but most of the
development work has been done for a fully active version, roughly
equivalent to AMRAAM British Aerospace have been proposing such a version
for years, and its probably only financial stringency and confused
political decision making which have prevented its production. We have
accordingly equipped our Tornado ADV with the proposed Active Sky Flash.
At launch the fire control system supplies an aiming point and information
on the target, and the missile then steers towards that point using
inertial navigation. At a preset point it turns on its own radar guidance
system and uses that to home on the target without assistance from the
launching aircraft. Thus it`s a real "fire- and-forget" missile like the
Sidewinder, and the pilot can manoeuvre as he likes after launch.

Launching Sky Flash

To launch a Sky Flash missile you must hit "arm air-to-air weapon" and use
"cycle air-to-air weapon" to select Sky Flash. This will be shown in the
lower left corner of the HUD, and on the Weapon Status indicator. A target
must also be designated on the Air Radar, using any preferred method, and
to take full advantage of Sky Flash, the radar should be set for long
range. The HUD symbology is almost exactly like that provided for the
AIM9L, except that there is no Lock-on Diamond, and the maximum range
reading on the Range Clock is 40000 metres (130000 feet / 21.5 nm)

Missile Ranges

As we mentioned above, most air-to-air missiles (and all of those you`ll
encounter in Tornado) are powered by solid- fuel rockets which provide only
a few seconds of thrust. Thereafter the missile coasts, slowing down due
to air resistance, manoeuvre drag, and the direct or indirect effects of
gravity. Any attempt to give a single straight answer when asked about a
missile`s range is bound to fail. The first uncertainty arises when you
try to decide where to draw the line. Is the missile`s extreme range the
distance it can travel before it loses all forward momentum, or are you
going to recognise that there`s a speed below which it cannot manoeuvre or
keep up with a given target? Among other factors affecting the range are:

Altitude

Drag is less at high altitudes, so the missile reaches a higher speed at
burn- out, decelerates more slowly and travels further. Missile ranges at
low altitudes tend to be disapointing, so the manufacturer will normally
quote the high altitude figure as the brochure range. In practice, modern
missiles may also be launched from high-flying aircraft at low-flying
targets or vice versa, which further complicates the issue.

Target Speed and Aspect

If a missile is launched head-on at an oncoming enemy aircraft. The target
and the missile are travelling toward one another at high speed. The
maximum launch range is greater than it would be against a stationary
target, by the distance the aircraft travels in the missile`s flight time.

On the other hand, if a missile is launched at a retreating target the
opposite is true. Maximum launch range against a receding target is
considerably less than maximum range against a stationary one, and it`s
easy to see that once the missile`s speed has fallen below the target`s a
hit is impossible.

Missile theoretical engagement ranges are frequently shown by means of a
diagram like diagram 10.23, called an engagement envelope, where the
egg-shaped boundary defines maximum Range from any (flat) direction
relative to the target`s own course. Such diagrams are helpful in that
they give you an idea of relative range from different directions, but
remember that the size of the boundary will change radically with altitude.

The other large assumption implicit in such a diagram is that the enemy is
flying in a straight line at a constant speed throughout the attack. If he
knows or suspects that there`s a missile coming his way this is highly
unlikely behaviour. If you assume that the target turns at a constant rate
throughout the missile`s flight you end up with a distorted engagement
envelope something like the shape in diagram 10.24, where the target is
assumed to be turning left. If you draw the matching envolope for a target
turning right, lay it on top of the first and shade in the area they share,
this represents the area within which you can launch the missile with some
reasonable hope that it can actually reach the target. As you can see,
it`s a LOT smaller than the first envelope we looked at - and this is still
an unrealistic, idealised version of the problem.

Suggested Ranges

How about some hard figures? For Sky Flash, which is normally quoted as
having a "range" of 30 miles or so, an RAF Tornado ADV pilot (interviewed
in an unclassified video) has quoted launch ranges of 20 miles from ahead
and 5 miles from astern. We assume that these are probably figures for
fairly high altitude, against a target doing a little less than Mach 1. At
low altitude, these figures might well be halved or worse.

For the AIM9L, the maximum engagement ranged by the maximum range at which
the infra red seeker can acquire and lock the target, which we have elected
to set at 8 nautical miles or so. As a rough guide, let`s say that
sensible maximum launch ranges at high altitude might be 5n.m. from ahead
or 1.5 from astern, or half of these figures at low altitude.

We may be doing the makers an injustice here, but if you use these ranges
as a guide then at least you can be reasonably sure that the missiles will
reach their targets. Whether they hit them is another question.

Missile Countermeasures: Flares, Chaff and Manoeuvres

Flares have been used to decoy heat seeking missiles for almost as long as
they have existed. As we said when discussing the AIM9L, it`s difficult
enough to build a infra red seeker which is immune to accidental natural
distractions let alone deliberate ones. However, modern IR seekers are a
great deal more discriminating than they used to be. In some cases they
can distinguish between a brightly burning flare and an aircraft, or they
may not be fooled for long.

Chaff - radar-reflecting strips dispensed in a cloud - has been in use
against search and gunnery radar for even longer than radar-guided missiles
have existed. Even though modern systems increasingly have the processing
power necessary to recognise and ignore returns from chaff clouds, they may
take time to reach a decision, and nothing much can be done about the
actual screening effect of the cloud.

Neither of these countermeasures really gives you immunity from missiles
though they can help a lot if used properly, and in conjunction with
manoeuvre The basic principle is that you must use the decoy when the
missile is fairly close, so that the aircraft will be out of the missile`s
field of view by the time the decoy has lost its effectiveness. If a
missile is approaching from behind, for example, dumping decoys and
continuing in a straight line may do you very little good: the missile
will pass them and you will still be in view. If, on the other hand, you
drop chaff and flares as the missile approaches and then turn hard or dive
out of the way, you may well be more successful.

Another idea to bear in mind is turning towards the attack. This is
recommended as a standard defensive move against a human fighter pilot, but
it may also have applications to missile evasion at close range. The
attractive point about it in either case is that it speeds up the rate at
which you cross the enemys field of view - just what you need against a
temporarily-decoyed missile. The ultimate form of this manoeuvre would
take you behind the missile before the decoy lost its usefulness, and the
seeker head will never see you there.

All of this advice is totally useless, however, unless you know or strongly
suspect that there`s a missile on the way, and don`t forget that the enemy
will also be using all these tricks against you and your missiles.

The Radar Warning Receiver (RWR)

Strictly speaking, a Radar Warning Receiver "listens" for hostile radar
signals using a system of antennae distributed all around the aircraft,
identifies the type of radar and the threat it presents, and shows the
result on a plan view display. This will tell you, for example, that
there`s an enemy fighter behind and to your right pointing its radar in
your direction, and there`s a SAM launcher looking at you from the left.

The RWR we`ve provided on the Tornado`s front panel will do these things of
course, but it has a significant extra capability. One of the features
proposed for the Tornado GR4 is a Missile Approach Warning System (MAWS).
Such systems (like the RWR itself) tend to be very highly classified, but
there are several possible ways in which it might work, including detecting
the sudden infra-red flare of a missile launching and the use of a
short-range omni directional radar with very high resolution to detect the
missiles themselves

Such a system would aim to warn you of an approaching missile, show you
which direction it was coming from, and possibly even discriminate between
heat-seeking and radar-guided missiles. We`ve assumed that all this can be
done, and incorporated the result into the Radar Warning Receive display
which thus becomes something more like a "Threat Display" in American
terminology.

The display itself shows a "clock-face" of bearing markers on the left, and
a column of text "discretes" down the right hand side. When a threat is
detected, a symbol with a characteristic shape is placed on the clock face
at the appropriate relative bearing, and the matching text on the right
will be lit up Every time a new threat is detected, there will also be an
audio warning which sounds rather like a telephone ringing. It`s important
to realise that the top of the clock face display represents the direction
in which your aircrafts nose is currently pointing, so that a threat on
your right will be shown at 3 o`clock whichever way you`re heading.

Symbols for radars will be shown in green, and on the PC version at least
missile symbols are shown in two different colours; orange for radar guided
missiles and red for infra-red (or visually-guided SAMS). Check the
Technical Supplement to see how missiles are distinguished on other
machines.


                 Radar Warning Receiver Symbology

       *                          ***
      ***   green    AAA UNIT     * *  green  AIRCRAFT RADAR
      * *                         ***

       *                           *
       *    green  SAM LAUNCHER   *** orange  INCOMING RADAR GUIDED MISSILE
      * *                          *

  *                                *
 * *   green EARLY WARNING RADAR  *** red  INCOMING HEAT SEEKING MISSILE
  *                                *

Air to air Tactics

As a pilot, your attitude to air combat should be entirely different
depending upon the Tornado variant you`re flying. Air combat is the ADV
pilots primary mission, though there will be times when it`s only prudent
to avoid it, and in an aircraft like the Tornado it`s especially important
to choose your targets tactics carefully. If an IDS pilot becomes involved
in air combat it usually means a stark choice between abandoning the
primary mission or losing the fight. The Tornado is NOT the ideal
dogfighting aeroplane at the best of times, and an IDS pilot who becomes
involved in air combat without jettisoning ground attack weapons is at a
huge disadvantage.

We'll look at the ADV pilot`s particular tasks and problems before going on
to look at air combat in general, as it applies to both variants.

Interception

The really important differences between ADV and IDS are the ADVs more
powerful air radar and the ability to carry Sky Flash medium-range missiles
The ADV is described as an interceptor rather than an air superiority
fighter Its design role is to loiter on patrol for long periods, waiting
for enemy bombers to approach, sprint to the best position for an attack
and use Sky Flash to kill from as far away as possible, as quickly as
possible, with the minimum of risk if the bombers are escorted then the
tactical problem is much more difficult, but if your mission is
interception it is vital to remember that you are there to knock down
bombers. Defeating the escort comes nowhere in your fist of priorities
unless you can`t get a shot at the bombers any other way.

Escort

This sort of role was not among the highest priorities in the design of the
ADV but in many ways it`s well suited to the task. Using fighters to
escourt strike missions is an American rather than an RAF practice, but
let`s keep an open mind and be prepared to give it a try. The full
American concept involves a "strike package" consisting of several
different aircraft types tasked with suppressing ground defences, jamming
and air escort as well as the aircraft carrying the ground attack weapons.
It`s a huge noisy collection of aircraft which cannot hope to conceal its
existence or location altogether, so it must be strong enough to fight off
any likely enemy reaction.

The classic RAF concept for employing Tornados is to depend entirely on the
aircraft`s terrain following ability to postpone or totally avoid radar
detection until it`s too late for the enemy to react by sending
interceptors. The RAF has no direct equivalent of the USAF`s "Wild
Weasels" (aircraft exclusively equipped and tasked for defence-suppression
work), but the Tornado IDS is already quite well suited for this, and ALARM
gives it a good capability. The demand or defence suppression is already
less than for the "strike package in any case" since the route is planned
to avoid known threats and the formation is a smaller, lower and more
difficult target.

If you do get involved in escorting a strike mission there are many ways to
deploy an escort. One way to use Tornado ADVs to protect a force of IDS
might be to arrange for the escort to trail the strike formation a few
miles back at low level, relying on the defence-suppression capabilities of
the leading IDS to clear a path where necessary. Though the ADV has no
terrain following capability, and the pilot must work a lot harder in order
to fly low safely, it shares with the IDS all the other features which make
the aircraft relatively easy and pleasant to fly at low level, and it
certainly has the endurance to stay with the formation all the way if
necessary.

The all Tornado strike package is an intriguing concept. Don`t dismiss it
just because the RAF doesn`t do it that way at the moment. Every airforce
evolves and uses a standard set of operating doctrines in peacetime, but
the well led ones are prepared to experiment if combat experience suggests
that there might be better ways of doing things. Be prepared to try
anything once, and if it works, use it.

Air Superiority

The Air Superiority mission is to drive the enemy`s fighters out of the sky
by engaging them directly. This is the air combat task for which the ADV
is least well suited. It`s optimised for long endurance and long range
missile engagements rather than seeking out the enemy`s fighters and
shooting them down. If possible, you should never use the ADV this way but
instead rely on allied air superiority fighters to attack the enemy`s
fighter forces directly

But all is not lost...

We`ve laid stress on the fact that a Tornado is not the world`s best
dogfighting aircraft because you`re in for unpleasant surprises if you try
to use it like an F- 16. Having said that, don`t get the idea that you`re
just a helpless flying target. A Tornado pilot goes into air combat
knowing very well that if he tries to rely on brute force and superior
aerodynamics he`ll lose the fight against any halfway competent opponent.
In order to win he`s got to work out his tactics advance and know how to
make the best of his aircraft`s qualities. This can be a decisive
advantage against an opponent who`s grown complacent because he knows he`s
flying one of the world`s hottest fighters, as many mock combats have
shown.

Close Air Combat

There`s no rigid set of commandments which will guarantee victory or even
avoid defeat. All we can give you are suggestions, some of which
contradict one another, but all of them contain at least a grain of truth.
Some of them are intended purely for simulator pilots, and would be bad
practice in the real world.

Either fight to win or run away

If you`re totally preoccupied with defending yourself, you`ll miss the
opportunity to attack. If you miss the opportunity to attack, you can
never gain the initiative If you can`t gain the initiative, you can never
win the fight.

Keep your eye on the target

Especially if you`re flying a simulator like this one rather than a real
aircraft Your view is unavoidably restricted, and if you once lose sight of
the enemy it`ll be difficult to find him again. If possible, hold him in a
position on the screen where he can`t quickly slip out of sight.

If the enemy is there but you can`t see him, don`t fly straight and level
while you`re looking.

Don`t give your opponent an easy target. Manoeuvering will also sweep your
visual and radar fields of view about, giving you a far better chance of
finding your opponent. Don`t forget to consult your RWR.

If in doubt, do something radical - anything!

This is related to the previous point. If whatever you`re doing at the
moment isn`t working and you have no better ideas, a sudden unexpected
manoeuvre will at least change the situation, and may gain you the
advantage of surprise Just be ready to seize any opportunity that may occur
be less surprised than the enemy.

A two-dimensional fight is a brute-force fight - you'll lose it!

The classic public conception of air combat pictures two aircraft chasing
around and around in a flat circle while one aircraft tries to get on the
tail of the other. This is a bad idea on two grounds. First, a Tornado
will eventually lose this sort of "winding match" against any air
superiority fighter. Second, it shows a desperate lack of imagination.
Use the third dimension, Luke... If you can give the enemy a complex
problem to solve, it`s surely better than giving him a simple one.
Remember the variants we suggested on the basic looping manoeuvre? Try
them out.

Use your roll rate

The Tornado has a fairly small wing area compared with most air-superiority
fighters - this is part of the reason why it can fly fast at low level.
While this means that the turn performance suffers, it also confers a very
fast roll rate up to 180° per second. In this respect the Tornado is equal
or superior to most fighters. Use the advantage to change your flightpath
quickly.

If you`ve got to fight at close quarters, do it at low level..

At low level you`re probably faster than the enemy and the Tornado is
performing at its best. At high level, the advantages are all on his side

Think Energy Conservation

Yes, that`s right; energy conservation. This is the core concept of the
theory of air combat currently taught to most fighter pilots. The energy
we`re talking about is the kinetic energy of the aircraft - speed times
weight, which can be converted into altitude by pointing the nose up - plus
its potential energy; altitude which can be converted into speed by
pointing the nose down. Drag is constantly draining energy from the system
and the thrust from your engines is replacing at least some of it. The
biggest drain of all is manoeuvre drag, which gets worse the harder you
pull. You can see speed bleed off in a hard turn - even at full Combat
Power. Try to minimise this loss if you can by not turning harder than
you`re forced to. If you run out of airspeed and altitude at the same
time, you`re in deep trouble. If you`re bleeding energy and can`t recover
it, you might do better to try to break off and run away while you can;
you`re about to run out of options.

Don't overshoot your target from behind

If you do, you`re giving him a very easy shot.

If the enemy is close behind, try to make him overshoot

See the above.

A slow-moving aircraft has a smaller turning circle than a fast moving
one..

This is one excellent reason why air combat normally takes place at
moderate speeds (say 400 - 500 knots). Simplifying slightly, we can say
that turning performance is described by two factors. One is speed, as
described. The other is RATE of turn; how many degrees the aircraft turns
per second, which is mainly governed by how much G is pulled in the turn.
If you experiment, you`ll find that the Tornado`s maximum 7.5 G just isn`t
available below a speed somewhere in the region of 400 knots. Flying
faster than this doesnt give you any greater G capability, because it`s a
structural limit of the aircraft. If you fly faster, all that will happen
is that your turning circle becomes larger.

At the minimum speed which allows you to pull 7.5 G the aircraft`s turn
rate is at its maximum and its turning circle is at its smallest for that
rate. This is called the Corner Speed, and it`s good practice to try to
stay somewhere near this speed for combat manoeuvering. Unfortunately, the
Tornado`s engines are not powerful enough to make up for the manoeuvre drag
at 7.5 G, so maximum turn performance is only available in a diving turn.

The other side of this particular coin is that a aircraft with a moderate G
limit flying slowly can sometimes out-turn an aircraft with a high G limit
flying faster.


AIRCREW NOTES
-------------

COCKPIT LAYOUT

Pilots Seat

Views available

This is the view looking forward from the pilot`s position (front cockpit).
The lower portion of the screen is occupied by the instrument panel and
above this you are looking through the canopy to the outside world. Panel
illumination self-adjusts with time of day and red or green cockpit
lighting is selectable (see "Preferences" described in "Options" in chapter
2).

Mounted centrally above the instrument panel is the Head Up Display (HUD),
described in detail later Clarity / contrast of the symbology is adjustable
by the pilot. Return to this view from any other by pressing the Front
Cockpit key.

Pressing the Front Cockpit key when already in the front cockpit will
select the "forward and up" view. The upper portion of the canopy
framework will be visible

This is the view looking left from the pilot`s position, selected by
pressing the Look Left key. Releasing the key will return to the forward
view. If you wish to continue looking left, either hold down the key or
press Shift and Look Left to lock the view. There are no cockpit
instruments on this side view

This is the view looking right from the pilot`s position, selected by
pressing the Look Right key. Releasing the key will return to the forward
view. If you wish to continue looking right, either hold down the key or
press Shift and Look Right to lock the view. There are no cockpit
instruments on this side view.


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PILOTS INSTRUMENT PANEL

Key
 
 1 Reverse thrust indicators
 2 Attention getter
 3 Autopilot engaged indicator
 4 Autothrottle engaged indicator
 5 Wheel brakes
 6 Landing gear position indicator
 7 Radar altimeter
 8 "B" risk indicator
 9 Vertical speed indicator
10 Indicated airspeed/ Mach number
11 Secondary control surfaces position indicator
12 Altimeter
13 Jettison all external stores + internal fuel
14 Jettison all external stores except AIM9L
15 Jettison external fuel tanks
16 Angle of attack indicator
17 E-Scope (IDS) or weapon status (ADV)
18 Horizontal situation indicator (HSI)
19 Attitude direction indicator (ADI) . 
20 Head up display (HUD) 
21 Late arm switch 
22 Head up display control panel 
23 Multi-function display (MFD) 
24 Mouse active indicator 
25 Radar "on" indicator
26 ECM "on" indicator
27 Radar warning receiver
28 Engine r.p m. indicators (left & right)
29 Engine temperature indicators (left & right)
30 Approach progress indicator
31 Reheat operating lights
32 G meter
33 Fuel flow indicator 
34 Fuel quantity indicator 
35 Standby compass 
36 Oxygen flow indicator 

Reverse thrust indicators 

Illuminated when reverse thrust selected.

Autopilot engaged indicator

Illuminated when autopilot (AFDS) engaged.

Autothrottle engaged indicator

Illuminated when autothrottle engaged.

Attention getter

Illuminates after system failure or warning. Refer to Central Warning
Panel in rear cockpit for identification of problem.

Angle of attack indicator

Mechanical display of angle of attack.

Head up display

See separate section later.

Late arm switch

Moves to its upper (armed) position after weapons armed using "arm ground
attack" key or "arm air attack" key. Moves to its lower (disarmed)
position by using "cancel arm" key. Weapons cannot be fired when the Late
Arm switch is down.

"B" risk indicator (IDS only)

Warning light advising you that Terrain Following system is at risk of
being unable to maintain the required safety margin. Usually caused by
attempting to fly too fast at low altitude. Recommended action is to
reduce speed or increase your ride height. n.b. This indicator operates
only when the autopilot is in Terrain Following mode.

Wheel brakes

Illuminated when wheel brakes applied.

Radar "on" indicator

Illuminated when aircraft's radar is active. Serves as a reminder to
aircrew that the radar is transmitting even though it may not be selected
on the MFD.

ECM "on" indicator

Illuminated when aircraft`s ECM is active. Serves as a reminder to aircrew
that the ECM equipment is transmitting.

Approach progress indicator

Illuminates during the approach to an allied airfield, 3500 feet from the
runway threshold. This serves as a reminder that touchdown is imminent.

Reheat operating lights

Illuminate when engine reheat selected.

Landing gear position Indicator

(a) Three green lights - gear down and locked
(b) Three red lights - gear not locked up or down
(c) No lights - gear locked up

Vertical speed indicator

Moves clockwise for a positive rate of climb and counter-clockwise for a
negative rate of climb (i.e. descent).

Secondary control surfaces position indicator

(a) Upper left four flap positions: zero flap
                                    manoeuvre flap
                                    mid flap
                                    full flap
(b) Upper right - slat positions:   zero slat
                                    manoeuvre slat
                                    mid slat

n.b. slat and flap positions are linked and not separately controllable

Jettison indicators

Three lights to confirm successful jettison of:

Left:     all external stores plus internal fuel to minimum
Centre:   all external stores except AlM9-L
Right:    external fuel tanks

Radar altimeter

Indicates height above ground level when below 5000 feet barometric Non
linear scale with highest resolution at low altitude.

Indicated Airspeed / Mach number

Analogue dial showing Indicated Airspeed up to 800 knots and digital
readout of Mach number.

Altimeter

Analogue dial showing barometric altitude. Each revolution of the large
needle represents 1000 feet. Each revolution of the small needle
represents 10000 feet. Also incorporates a numeric display for those who
prefer a digital presentation.

E-scope (IDS) or Weapon status (ADV)

(a) E-scope (IDS Tornado)

Shows projection of terrain ahead of aircraft when flying at low altitudes
distance of "look ahead" is automatically adjusted to increase with
aircraft speed. The small marker on the left edge of the display
represents your aircraft.

(b) Weapon status (ADV Tornado)

The weapons status indicator shows which air-to-air weapon is selected
(highlighted) and armed (flashing). The pilot may select between guns,
AIM9 L Sidewinder or Sky Flash. The weapon name will not highlight if it
is not available.